Dilemma

Is the universe running out of usable energy?

The heat death of the universe — entropy maxed out, no further work possible — is among the more sobering implications of mainstream physics. Whether it is structurally inescapable depends on what kind of finitude the cosmos has.

Context

Standard cosmology projects a far future in which all stars have burned out, all matter has been processed into increasingly disordered states, and the universe has reached thermal equilibrium with no further usable energy gradients. Whether this is the actual fate of the cosmos depends on parameters that are still being refined (dark energy behavior, possible cyclic cosmologies, quantum effects at very long timescales). The philosophical weight of the projection depends on which kind of finitude the universe instantiates — fully finite, infinite in some dimensions, infinite in all.

Why it matters

The heat-death projection is one of the inputs to longtermist ethics, to several theological discussions of eschatology, and to popular reflection on cosmic meaning. Whether it presents a real horizon of possibility or only an artifact of a particular cosmology bears on how much weight to put on long-term flourishing and on what kind of cosmic story we are part of.

The coordinates that split the schools

Time · Extent Whether time is finite or infinite matter_extent

The stances

The cosmos has bounds; heat death is a real horizon.

20 schools

On this view, time itself is finite — the universe had a beginning and will have an end. Heat death (or whatever the actual end-state turns out to be) is a real horizon, structurally implied by the kind of cosmos we live in.

Why these schools land hereSchools with time_extent=Finite include the Abrahamic religious traditions (Catholic, Reformed, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Islamic, Jewish, Zoroastrian, Manichaean, Bahá'í) reading creation and eschatology as bounded; plus various secular schools that read time as finite for cosmological or transcendental reasons (Phenomenology, Presentism, Hylomorphism, Empiricism, KTI, Pragmatic Realism, Pragmatism, Confucianism, Stoicism, Determinism, Sikhism, Logical Positivism, Process Philosophy in some readings, Phenomenalism, Absurdism). The religious traditions in the cluster typically resolve the heat-death weight through eschatological accounts.
Works: Timaeus (Late) A Theology of Liberation (Early (Gutiérrez's breakthrough work; the founding text of the school)) The Avesta The Kephalaia Fī l-Falsafa al-Ūlā (On First Philosophy) (Early) My Early Life (Mid) A Burst of Light (Late) The Bluest Eye (Mid) Sula (Mid) This Is My Story (Mid) You Learn by Living (Late) Tomorrow Is Now (Late) Shabuhragan (Mature) Living Gospel (Evangelium Vivum) (Mature) Treasure of Life (Mature) Book of Mysteries (Mature) Maktūbāt (Letters) (Mature) The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) (Early) The Death of Ivan Ilyich (Late) 21 Lessons for the 21st Century (Mid) Just As I Am (Late) Approaching Hoofbeats (Mid) The Journey: How to Live by Faith in an Uncertain World (Late) On Cheerfulness (Mature) Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (Late) Maria, or The Wrongs of Woman (Late) Original Stories from Real Life (Early) Necropolitics (Mature) Brutalism (Late) Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (Mid) The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea (Mature) Sun and Steel (Late) Teaching to Transgress (Mid) Zafarnama (Mature) West India Emancipation (Mid) Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Mid) Dreams from My Father (Early) A Promised Land (Late) 2004 Democratic National Convention Keynote Address (Early) Rivonia Trial Statement (Mid) Inaugural Address (Late) Stride Toward Freedom (Early) Why We Can't Wait (Mid) The Conquest of Happiness (Mid) Where's the Rest of Me? (Early) The Reagan Diaries (Late) Evil Empire Speech (Late) Looking Forward (Mid) A World Transformed (Late) Thousand Points of Light (Mid) Promise Me, Dad (Late) Trump: The Art of the Comeback (Mid) Crippled America: How to Make America Great Again (Late) Call to Arms (Nahan) (Mid) Wandering (Panghuang) (Mid) Shōzōmatsu Wasan (Late) On the Theology of Death (Mid) With Head and Heart (Late) The Asian Journal (Late (final)) The Memorandum (Early) To the Castle and Back (Late) Babar Vani (Mid) A History of Philosophy (Career-spanning) Aquinas (Mid-career) Contemporary Philosophy: Studies of Logical Positivism and Existentialism (Mid-career) Religion and Philosophy (Late) Philosophies and Cultures (Late) Origines Sacrae (Early-career) A Rational Account of the Grounds of Protestant Religion (Early-career) The Unreasonableness of Separation (Mid-career) A Discourse in Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity (Late) The Bishop of Worcester's Answer to Mr Locke (Late) De Trinitatis Erroribus (Early) Dialogorum de Trinitate (Early) Edition of Ptolemy's Geography (Middle) Christianismi Restitutio (Late (final)) A Just Vindication of the Church of England (Late (Civil-War exile)) A Defence of True Liberty from Antecedent and Extrinsecal Necessity (Late) Castigations of Mr Hobbes (Late) The Catching of Leviathan (Late) Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei (Career-defining) De Potestate Summi Pontificis in Rebus Temporalibus (Late) Letter to Foscarini (Late) De Aeterna Felicitate Sanctorum (Late (devotional)) An Introduction to Wittgenstein's Tractatus (Mid-career) Collected Philosophical Papers (Late) Dogmatics in Outline (Late-middle) Evangelical Theology (Late) The Barmen Declaration (Middle) A Dying Colonialism (Middle (during Algerian war)) Prophesy Deliverance! (Early) Black Prophetic Fire (Late) Another Country (Middle) No Name in the Street (Late) If Beale Street Could Talk (Late) The Origin of Russian Communism (Late) The Beginning and the End (Late) Self-Knowledge (Posthumous) Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics (Early-to-middle) Contributions to Philosophy (Of the Event) (Middle (Kehre)) The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (Middle) The Serenity Prayer (Middle) Gaudete et Exsultate (Late-middle (papacy)) Let Us Dream (Late-middle) The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (Early) Bāng-i-Darā (Early-to-middle) Three Conversations (Final (year of death)) The Arcades Project (Career-spanning (unfinished)) Berlin Childhood Around 1900 (Middle (composed during exile)) Loaves and Fishes (Middle-to-late) Martin & Malcolm & America (Mid-to-late)

Time is unbounded but matter is finite; usable energy can fail without time failing.

50 schools

On this view, time extends without limit but matter (and the configurations that support energy gradients) is finite. The universe can thus 'run out' of usable energy without time stopping — the eternal expanse continues past the moment when nothing further can happen.

Why these schools land hereThe cluster — Naturalism, Realism, Critical Realism, Analytic Metaphysics, Object-Oriented Ontology, Eternalism, plus many process and constructivist schools — holds time as infinite while matter is bounded. The cosmological implication is the heat-death scenario in its starkest form: ongoing time without ongoing process. The cluster's philosophical traditions have generally taken this as a sobering fact rather than as grounds for despair.
Works: The Upanishads The Bhagavad Gita The Dhammapada Tao Te Ching Zhuangzi — Inner Chapters The Republic Nicomachean Ethics Meditations On the Origin of Species Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Early) The Myth of Sisyphus The Analects Metaphysics Phaedo The Enneads Yoga Sutras Mūlamadhyamakakārikā Symposium De Anima A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (Early) Apology (Early) Phaedrus (Late) Politics On the Nature of the Gods (Late) Brahma Sutra Bhāṣya Abhidharmakośa Visuddhimagga The Heart Sutra The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch Mencius Xunzi I Ching Relativity: The Special and General Theory Physics and Philosophy Meno (Early) After Virtue Physics Theaetetus (Late) Crito (Early) Laws (Latest) The Rebel (Late) Categories The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Late (post-crisis)) Deliverance from Error (Late) On Interpretation Divine Comedy: Inferno (Late (Dante's exile years)) Monologion (Early (Anselm's first major work, before the Proslogion)) Enchiridion Militis Christiani (Early (Erasmus's first major work)) Mishneh Torah (Mid (the major legal work, between the early Commentary on the Mishnah and the late Guide of the Perplexed)) No Exit (Mid (alongside Being and Nothingness)) Liber Divinorum Operum (Late (the culmination of her visionary trilogy)) On Christian Doctrine (Mid-late (composed across three decades)) Liber Vitae Meritorum (Mid (the middle volume of the visionary trilogy)) Prior and Posterior Analytics On the Heavens Parisian Questions (Mid-late) Praise of Folly (Mid (Erasmus's most widely read book)) Adagia (Long (composed across Erasmus's entire mature career)) Ninety-Five Theses (Early (the founding act of the Reformation)) The Freedom of a Christian (Early (1520 is Luther's most productive year of foundational treatises)) On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (Early (1520, foundational year)) Convivio (Mid (early years of exile, preceding the Comedy)) Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (Mid-late (Averroes's major systematic philosophical defence)) Vom Abgeschiedenheit (On Detachment) / Counsels on Discernment (Early) Provincial Letters (Late) Symphonia harmoniae caelestium revelationum (Mid-late) Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum) (Mid) Eudemian Ethics Commentary on the Mishnah (Early-mid) Guru Granth Sahib Waiting for Godot (En attendant Godot) (Mid) An Essay on the Principle of Population (Late) Down to Earth (Late) Laudato Si' (Late) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Late) The Artwork of the Future (Early) Opera and Drama (Early-to-Middle) Tristan und Isolde (Middle (post-Schopenhauer)) Der Ring des Nibelungen (Middle-to-late (career-spanning)) Religion and Art (Late) Parsifal (Late (final completed work)) History of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career) The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career (companion to the History)) Of Induction (Mid-career polemic) Novum Organon Renovatum (Late) On the Philosophy of Discovery (Late-career capstone) A Theory of Conditionals (Early) Inquiry (Mid-career) Context and Content (Mid-to-late) Ways a World Might Be (Late-middle) Our Knowledge of the Internal World (Late) Context (Late) Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature (Mid-career) Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? (Mid-career, post-EPR) Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge (Late) Essays 1958–1962 on Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge (Final) From a Logical Point of View (Mid-career) Set Theory and Its Logic (Mid-career) Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (Mid-to-late) The Roots of Reference (Late) Pursuit of Truth (Late) The Poverty of Historicism (Mid-career) Objective Knowledge (Late) Substance and Function (Early) The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy (Middle) The Myth of the State (Final) Plato's Dialectical Ethics (Early) Philosophical Hermeneutics (Late-middle) The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy (Late) Reason in the Age of Science (Late) Speech and Phenomena (Early) Margins of Philosophy (Middle (one of three 1972 volumes)) Limited Inc (Middle-late) Specters of Marx (Late) A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God (Early-career) A Discourse Concerning the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion (Early-career) The Scripture-Doctrine of the Trinity (Mid-career) Micrographia (Early-career (career-defining)) An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations (Mid-career) Lectures de Potentia Restitutiva (Mid-career) The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke (Posthumous) American Power and the New Mandarins (Early (political work)) Reflections on Language (Mid-career (linguistic work)) Manufacturing Consent (Mid-late (political work)) The Minimalist Program (Late (linguistic work)) General Scholium (Late) Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (Posthumous) Alchemical and Theological Manuscripts (Career-spanning private work) Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (Late) Perpetual Peace (Late) The Metaphysics of Morals (Late) On Vision and Colors (Early) On the Will in Nature (Middle) The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics (Late) The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms (Final) Parts of Animals (Middle) Expression and Meaning (Mid-career) Minds, Brains, and Programs (Mid-career) Mind: A Brief Introduction (Late) Philosophy of New Music (Middle) Aesthetic Theory (Final) Reflections on the Guillotine (Late) The First Man (Final (unfinished)) Lectures on Jurisprudence (Middle) Essays on Philosophical Subjects (Posthumous) The Analyst (Late) The First Cities (Early) Essays, Moral and Political (Middle) The History of England (Late) The Roads to Freedom (Middle) The Words (Late) Sonnets (Career-spanning) Between Man and Man (Middle-to-late) Two Types of Faith (Late) Contact (Late) Shibun Yōryō (Early) Naobi no Mitama (Middle) Kojiki-den (Late (career-spanning)) Brahma-siddhi (Mature) Vidhi-viveka (Mature) Bhāvanā-viveka (Mature) Viṃśatikā (Mature (post-conversion to Mahāyāna)) Triṃśikā (Mature) Essence of Eloquence on the Interpretable and Definitive Meanings (Late-mature) In Praise of Dependent Origination (Early-mature) Kitāb al-Mashāʿir (Mature) Al-Shawāhid al-Rubūbiyya (Mid-to-late) Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb (Late) Mind-Energy (Middle) She Came to Stay (Early) Pyrrhus and Cineas (Early) Deep Utopia (Late) Journal (Career-spanning) The Sacred Pipe (Late) The Sixth Grandfather (Posthumous (testamentary materials)) Decision Points (Late (post-presidency)) Paradoxes (fragments) Republic (fragments) (Early) Logical Investigations (fragments) (Mature) On Providence (fragments) (Mature) On the Creation of the World On the Life of Moses Against Celsus On Abstinence from Animal Food On the Sacred Disease Memorabilia Antidosis The Histories On the Natural Faculties The Consolation of Philosophy Sayings and Legal Rulings Arthashastra Thirukkural Ramayana

Both time and matter are unbounded; 'running out' is misframed.

26 schools

On this view, the cosmos has neither a temporal horizon nor a material exhaustion point. The framing of running out presupposes bounds that the cosmos doesn't have. Energy gradients perpetuate; new configurations emerge; the categories that make heat-death scary don't apply at the cosmic scale.

Why these schools land hereSchools with time_extent=Infinite and matter_extent=Infinite include Multiverse Theory (with its endless branches and matter densities) and a few other schools that read the cosmos as fundamentally unbounded. The cluster is small but philosophically coherent: if the cosmos is genuinely infinite in both dimensions, the finite-cosmology projections describe a local patch, not the whole.
Works: Fragments Letter to Menoeceus Ethics An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Late) Critique of Pure Reason Phenomenology of Spirit (Early) Thus Spoke Zarathustra Being and Time (Early) Being and Nothingness Philosophical Investigations (Late) Leviathan Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica Capital, Volume I (Late) On Liberty The Second Sex Utilitarianism The Communist Manifesto (Early) A Theory of Justice Cartesian Meditations (Late) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Late) Process and Reality (Late) The World as Will and Representation Letter on Humanism (Late) The Varieties of Religious Experience Monadology (Late) Outlines of Pyrrhonism De Cive (Early) A Treatise of Human Nature (Early) Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Late) Critique of Practical Reason (Late) Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals Critique of Judgment (Late) System of Transcendental Idealism (Early) Theses on Feuerbach (Early) The Problems of Philosophy (Early) The Foundations of Arithmetic Experience and Nature (Late) How to Make Our Ideas Clear What Is Metaphysics? (Early) Phenomenology of Perception The Order of Things Of Grammatology Totality and Infinity (Early) The Human Condition On Certainty (Latest) The Selfish Gene Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Novum Organum The Structure of Scientific Revolutions The Open Society and Its Enemies On the Genealogy of Morality (Late) A History of Western Philosophy (Late) Theory of Communicative Action Discipline and Punish (Late) Theological-Political Treatise (Early) Existentialism Is a Humanism Opticks (Late) The Natural History of Religion (Late) On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (Early) Pragmatism (Late) Political Liberalism (Late) Two Dogmas of Empiricism Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (Early) Beyond Good and Evil (Late) The Birth of Tragedy (Early) The Ethics of Ambiguity (Early) The Subjection of Women (Late) The Question Concerning Technology (Late) The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Early-to-late (he revised it throughout his life)) Principia Mathematica (Early (both authors)) Gettysburg Address (Mature (Civil War)) Second Inaugural Address (Late (six weeks before assassination)) Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Mid-late (the second of the After Virtue trilogy)) Why I Am Not a Christian (Mid-late) The Problem of Pain (Mid (post-conversion, pre-Narnia)) Discourse on the Method (Mid (1637, in mature middle age; preceding the Meditations of 1641)) Theodicy (Late) Logical Investigations (Early (the breakthrough work that founds phenomenology)) Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology (Mid (the transcendental turn)) The Gay Science (Middle (between Daybreak and Zarathustra)) The Concept of Anxiety (Mid (the productive year of 1844 — Concept of Anxiety, Philosophical Fragments, etc.)) A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Mid (Northampton pastorate; the major work of evangelical reflection)) The History of Sexuality (Late (his last major project)) A Plain Account of Christian Perfection (Late) I and Thou (Mid (the foundational statement of dialogical philosophy)) Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Mid-late (after The Human Condition, before The Life of the Mind)) Walden (Mid (Thoreau's major prose statement)) Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Late (the mature systematic philosophy)) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Mid (the breakthrough book)) Works of Love (Late (after the pseudonymous works; the major direct theological work)) Essays: First Series (Mid (Emerson at the peak of his powers)) The Will to Believe (Mid (between Principles of Psychology and Varieties of Religious Experience)) The Nature and Destiny of Man (Mid-late (Niebuhr's major systematic work)) Adventures of Ideas (Late (Whitehead's last major book)) The Origins of Totalitarianism (Mid (Arendt's breakthrough book)) On Revolution (Late (after Eichmann in Jerusalem)) Dependent Rational Animals (Late (the explicit Thomist completion of the After Virtue trilogy)) Life Together (Mid (between the Cost of Discipleship and the prison theology)) The Copernican Revolution (Early (Kuhn's first book)) The Sovereignty of Good (Mid (her major philosophical statement, alongside Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals 1992)) Science of Logic (Mid (the central work of the mature Hegelian system)) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Early (the breakthrough work)) The Epistle to the Romans (Early (the breakthrough work)) The Origin of German Tragic Drama (Early (the most ambitious early work, before the Arcades Project)) The Social Contract (Late (after the two Discourses; the political conclusion of Rousseau's mature thought)) Émile (Late) Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Mid (between the First Discourse and the Social Contract)) The Principles of Psychology (Mid (the major early work; foundational for both psychology and pragmatist philosophy)) Otherwise than Being (Late (the more radical successor to Totality and Infinity, 1961)) The Logical Structure of the World (Early (Carnap's breakthrough work)) Zhuangzi The Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean The Stranger (Early (the breakthrough novel)) The Plague (Mid (between The Stranger and The Rebel)) Brave New World (Mid (Huxley's breakthrough novel)) The Perennial Philosophy (Late (Huxley's mature spiritual-philosophical synthesis)) The Doors of Perception (Late) Ideas and Opinions (Late (the most comprehensive single-volume collection)) Science and the Modern World (Mid (the major statement of philosophical-cultural critique, preceding the technical metaphysics of Process and Reality)) The Concept of Nature (Early-mid (preceding Science and the Modern World, 1925)) Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry (Late (third volume of the After Virtue trilogy)) Letter from Birmingham Jail (Mid (the canonical theological-political document)) Strength to Love (Mid (the major collection of sermons)) Gravity and Grace (Posthumous (Weil died in 1943 at age 34)) The Need for Roots (Posthumous) Waiting for God (Posthumous) Sanctorum Communio (Earliest (Bonhoeffer's dissertation at age 21)) The Seven Storey Mountain (Early (Merton's breakthrough book; the spiritual autobiography of his conversion)) Seeds of Contemplation (1949) / New Seeds of Contemplation (Mid-late (Merton's mature contemplative theology)) Love and Responsibility (Early (his major pre-papal work; drawn from pastoral and academic teaching)) The Acting Person (Mid (his major academic-philosophical work, before his 1978 papal election)) Hind Swaraj (Early (the founding text of Gandhi's mature political-philosophical vision)) An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Late-mid (looking back over the formative years)) Sister Outsider (Mid (the major prose collection of Lorde's career)) Tales of the Hasidim (Late (Buber's mature engagement with the Hasidic tradition)) A Black Theology of Liberation (Early (the systematic founding text of the field)) The Cross and the Lynching Tree (Late (Cone's major late book)) Gitanjali (Mid (the Nobel-winning collection)) Sadhana: The Realisation of Life (Mid (the major philosophical prose statement)) No Future Without Forgiveness (Late (the major reflective work after the TRC)) Nausea (Early (Sartre's first novel, before Being and Nothingness)) Critique of Dialectical Reason (Late (Sartre's major late philosophical work)) Crime and Punishment (Mid (the first of Dostoevsky's great late novels)) Notes from Underground (Mid (the transition into the great late period)) The Idiot (Mid (after Crime and Punishment, before Demons and Karamazov)) Demons (Mid-late (the third of the four great novels)) The Fall (Late (Camus's last completed novel; the Nobel followed in 1957)) Moral Man and Immoral Society (Early-mid (Niebuhr's breakthrough book that established Christian realism)) The Irony of American History (Late (Niebuhr's major Cold War political-theological book)) Lectures on the Philosophy of History (Late (Berlin lectures of the 1820s, his mature mature)) Lectures on Aesthetics (Late (Berlin lectures)) Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (Mature (the most comprehensive single-text statement of the system)) Madness and Civilization (Early (Foucault's breakthrough work, his doctoral dissertation)) The Birth of the Clinic (Early-mid (between Madness and Civilization and The Order of Things)) The Archaeology of Knowledge (Mid (methodological transition between archaeological and genealogical phases)) Scivias (Early (the first of her three major visionary works)) Principles of Political Economy (Mid (Mill's major economic work)) Philosophical Fragments (Mid (the same productive 1844 as Concept of Anxiety)) Practice in Christianity (Late (the last major pseudonymous work; preceding the attack on the Danish state church)) Repetition (Early-mid (the same explosive 1843 as Either/Or and Fear and Trembling)) A System of Logic (Early (Mill's first major book, the foundation of his philosophical reputation)) Time and the Other (Early (the breakthrough early work, before Totality and Infinity)) Existence and Existents (Early (the first major book, before Time and the Other)) Difficult Freedom (Mid (alongside Totality and Infinity)) The Imaginary (Early (preceding Being and Nothingness)) Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (Late (Berlin lectures)) De Brevitate Vitae (Mid) De Providentia (Late) On Nature (Fragments) Discourse on Metaphysics (Mid (Leibniz's breakthrough philosophical statement)) New Essays on Human Understanding (Late) Psychological Types (Mid (the major systematic work after his 1912-13 break with Freud)) Modern Man in Search of a Soul (Mid-late (mature systematic statement)) The Interpretation of Dreams (Early (the founding work of psychoanalysis)) Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Early-mid (after the Interpretation of Dreams)) Mrs Dalloway (Mid (the first major modernist novel of Woolf's maturity)) To the Lighthouse (Mid (Woolf at the height of her powers)) Hamlet (Mid (mature middle period)) King Lear (Mid-late (the major tragedies)) Confessions of a Mask (Early (the breakthrough novel that established Mishima's literary reputation)) Tristes Tropiques (Mid (Lévi-Strauss's most widely read book)) Essays in Zen Buddhism (Mid (Suzuki's major early period of Western dissemination)) Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (Early (Suzuki's first major book; preceding the Essays in Zen Buddhism by twenty years)) Kitáb-i-Íqán (Mid (pre-declaration in 1863)) Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Late (the major late doctrinal-legal book)) Death and the King's Horseman (Mid (the major play of Soyinka's career)) The Savage Mind (Mid (the systematic statement of structural anthropology)) Structural Anthropology (Mid (the methodological consolidation)) Reason, Truth and History (Mid (the major mid-career book, the systematic statement of internal realism)) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (Early (the first of Douglass's three autobiographies)) What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? (Mid (Douglass at the height of his oratorical powers)) The Waste Land (Mid (the canonical modernist poem)) Four Quartets (Late (Eliot's mature Anglo-Catholic period)) Tradition and the Individual Talent (Early (Eliot's major early critical statement)) Vita Nuova (Early (Dante's first major work)) The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (Late (the mature systematic statement of archetypal psychology)) A Time for Choosing (Early (launched Reagan's political career)) Tear Down This Wall (Late (Reagan presidency at its rhetorical peak)) Why Not the Best? (Mid (pre-presidential)) A Vindication of the Rights of Men (Early (preceding the more famous 1792 Vindication of the Rights of Woman)) Faust, Part I (Mid (composed across Goethe's career; Part I the major mid-career work)) The Sorrows of Young Werther (Early (the 25-year-old Goethe's breakthrough work)) The Power of the Powerless (Mid (Havel as principal Charter 77 dissident)) First Inaugural Address (Mid (the inauguration after twelve years of Republican presidency)) Six Crises (Mid (pre-presidential, post-1960 defeat)) On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Early) Parerga and Paralipomena (Late) An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Mid-late) Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (Early) Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Mid) Achieving Our Country (Late) Representation and Reality (Mid) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (Late) Gravitation (Mid-late) It from Bit / Information, Physics, Quantum (Late) A Cyborg Manifesto (Mid) Staying with the Trouble (Late) Beloved (Mid (the Pulitzer-winning major novel)) Playing in the Dark (Mid-late) The Sea of Fertility (Late (the major late work, completed the day of his 1970 ritual suicide)) Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist (Late) Zen and Japanese Culture (Late) The Reasonableness of Christianity (Late) Creation and Fall (Early-mid) The Hidden Words (Early) The Lion and the Jewel (Early) Aké: The Years of Childhood (Mid) Myth, Literature and the African World (Mid) The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Mid) Psychology and Alchemy (Late) Answer to Job (Late) Peace with God (Early-mid) Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Late (the major autobiographical work)) Runaway Horses (Late) An American Life (Late) My Life (Late) Promises to Keep (Mid) Trump: The Art of the Deal (Early) Principles of Nature and Grace (Late) De Tranquillitate Animi (Mid-late) De Vita Beata (Mid-late) Parmenides Sophist Man's Search for Meaning (Mid-late) Systematic Theology (Mid) Island (Late) No Man Is an Island (Mid) Conjectures of a Guilty Bystander (Late) Mystics and Zen Masters (Late) The Prophetic Faith (Late) Eclipse of God (Late) Anasakti Yoga: The Gita According to Gandhi (Mid-late) Letters to Olga (Mid (composed during Havel's 1979-83 imprisonment)) The Cancer Journals (Mid) The Symbolism of Evil (Early) Freedom and Nature: The Voluntary and the Involuntary (Early) Time and Narrative (Late) Oneself as Another (Late) Memory, History, Forgetting (Late) Writing and Difference (Early) Word and Object (Mid) Civilization and Its Discontents (Late) The Future of an Illusion (Late) Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Late) Dialectic of Enlightenment (Mid) Negative Dialectics (Late) Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (Mid) Eclipse of Reason (Mid) One-Dimensional Man (Late) Eros and Civilization (Mid) Theses on the Philosophy of History (Late) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (Late) The Wretched of the Earth (Late) Black Skin, White Masks (Early) Knowledge and Human Interests (Early) Between Facts and Norms (Late) The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Mid) Truth and Method (Mid) Gender Trouble (Early) Bodies That Matter (Early) Orientalism (Mid) Culture and Imperialism (Late) Can the Subaltern Speak? (Mid) Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Early) Democracy and Education (Mid) Art as Experience (Late) The Quest for Certainty (Late) The Fixation of Belief (Early) The Philosophy of Loyalty (Late) Modes of Thought (Late) Symbols of Transformation (Early (the 1912 break-from-Freud book; revised in 1952 as the mature statement of analytical psychology's mythopoeic register)) The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Early (Lévi-Strauss's breakthrough work; the foundation of structural anthropology)) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Late (Næss's mature statement; the systematic expansion of his 1973 "shallow vs deep ecology" essay)) The Conscious Mind (Early (Chalmers's breakthrough book, derived from his 1993 Indiana PhD)) Tool-Being (Early (Harman's breakthrough work, derived from his 1999 DePaul PhD)) On the Plurality of Worlds (Late (Lewis's mature systematic statement of the modal-realist programme)) Time and Modality (Early (Prior's first major synthesis of tense logic, derived from his 1955-56 Oxford Locke Lectures)) The Book of Mormon The Odu Ifá Corpus Church Dogmatics (Mid) Foundations of Christian Faith (Late) The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics (Late) Jesus Christ and Mythology (Late) Theology of the New Testament (Late) A Community of Character (Mid) Theology of Hope (Early) Systematic Theology (Late) The Politics of Jesus (Mid) The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Early) Conjectures and Refutations (Mid) The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes (Late) Against Method (Mid) The Logical Syntax of Language (Mid) Aspects of Scientific Explanation (Mid) Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (Late) The Uses of Argument (Early) Patterns of Discovery (Early) The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (Mid) The Visible and the Invisible (Late) The Prose of the World (Mid) Being Given (Late) The Essence of Manifestation (Early) Heretical Essays in the Philosophy of History (Late) Finite and Eternal Being (Late) Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values (Mid) The Mystery of Being (Late) Philosophy (Mid) Philosophy of Existence (Late) Essays on Actions and Events (Mid) Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (Mid) Naming and Necessity (Mid) Counterfactuals (Early) Mind and World (Late) Making It Explicit (Mid) Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (Mid) Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics (Early) Intention (Mid) Truth and Other Enigmas (Mid) Reflections on the Revolution in France (Late) The Federalist Papers (Mid) Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Mid) Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Early) Spheres of Justice (Mid) Sources of the Self (Mid) A Secular Age (Late) Two Concepts of Liberty (Mid) The Hedgehog and the Fox (Mid) The Concept of the Political (Mid) Mahāyānasaṃgraha (Mid) Śrī Bhāṣya (Mid) Anuvyākhyāna (Mid) Shōbōgenzō (Late) Wild Ivy (Itsumadegusa) (Late) Attaining Enlightenment in This Very Existence (Sokushin Jōbutsu Gi) (Early) Lam rim chen mo (The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment) (Mid) Inquiry on the Great Learning (Daxue Wen) (Late) Zhuzi Yulei (Conversations of Master Zhu, Arranged Topically) (Late) The Life Divine (Late) Kitāb al-Najāt (Book of Salvation) (Mid) Kitāb al-Ishārāt wa-l-Tanbīhāt (Remarks and Admonitions) (Late) Long Commentary on De Anima (Late) Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam (Bezels of Wisdom) (Late) al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revelations) (Late) al-Ḥikma al-Mutaʿāliya fī l-Asfār al-ʿAqliyya al-Arbaʿa (Transcendent Wisdom in the Four Intellectual Journeys) (Late) Ḥikmat al-Ishrāq (The Philosophy of Illumination) (Mid) Mabādiʾ Ārāʾ Ahl al-Madīna al-Fāḍila (Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City) (Mid) Muqaddimah (Late) Itinerarium Mentis in Deum (The Mind's Road to God) (Mid) Ordinatio (Late) Summa Logicae (Late) De Docta Ignorantia (On Learned Ignorance) (Late) The Divine Names (De Divinis Nominibus) (Late) The Life of Moses (De Vita Moysis) (Late) Periphyseon (On the Division of Nature) (Mid) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Late) The Feminine Mystique (Late) Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Mid) Frontiers of Justice (Late) Justice and the Politics of Difference (Mid) Omnipotence and Other Theological Mistakes (Late) Christ in a Pluralistic Age (Mid) Foundations of the Science of Knowledge (Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre) (Early) Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (Late) Ethics (Ethik) (Late) Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color (Mid) On Nature (Peri Physeos) (Early) On Nature and Purifications (Fragments) (Early) On Nature (Fragments) (Early) Discourses (Diatribai) (Mid) Enchiridion (Handbook) (Late) De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) (Mid) Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (Late) Moralia (Ēthika) (Late) Isagoge (Introduction to Aristotle's Categories) (Late) Adversus Mathematicos (Against the Mathematicians / Professors) (Late) On First Principles (Peri Archōn / De Principiis) (Early) On the Incarnation (De Incarnatione Verbi Dei) (Early) On the Holy Spirit (De Spiritu Sancto) (Late) Theological Orations (Orations 27-31) (Mid) Ambigua to John (Ambigua ad Iohannem) (Late) Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (De Fide Orthodoxa) (Late) Hymns of Divine Love (Hymnoi tōn Theiōn Erōtōn) (Late) Triads (Triads in Defense of the Holy Hesychasts) (Late) The Pillar and Ground of the Truth (Mid) The Bride of the Lamb (Late) Sic et Non (Yes and No) (Early) Didascalicon (On the Study of Reading) (Early) The Dark Night (La Noche Oscura) (Late) The Interior Castle (Castillo Interior) (Late) Ars Magna (Ars Generalis Ultima) (Late) The Mirror of Simple Souls (Le Mirouer des Simples Âmes) (Late) Oration on the Dignity of Man (Oratio de hominis dignitate) (Mid) The Prince (Il Principe) (Late) Discourses on Livy (Discorsi sopra la prima Deca di Tito Livio) (Late) On the Infinite Universe and Worlds (De l'Infinito Universo e Mondi) (Late) Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno à Due Nuove Scienze) (Late) The Sceptical Chymist (Mid) Historical and Critical Dictionary (Dictionnaire Historique et Critique) (Late) New Science (Late) The Spirit of the Laws (De l'esprit des lois) (Late) Candide (Candide, ou l'Optimisme) (Late) Philosophical Letters (Lettres Philosophiques / Lettres Anglaises) (Mid) Utopia (De Optimo Reipublicae Statu deque Nova Insula Utopia) (Mid) The Passions of the Soul (Les Passions de l'âme) (Late) Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence (Late) Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience) (Early) Matter and Memory (Matière et Mémoire) (Mid) Creative Evolution (L'évolution créatrice) (Late) Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt) (Early) The Christian Faith (Der christliche Glaube) (Late) Biographia Literaria (Mid) Preface to Lyrical Ballads (Early) A Confession (Ispoved') (Late) Leaves of Grass (Late) Faust, Part Two (Faust: Der Tragödie zweiter Teil) (Late) Consciousness Explained (Mid) The Construction of Social Reality (Late) Speech Acts (Early) The View from Nowhere (Mid) Warranted Christian Belief (Late) An Essay on Free Will (Mid) Reasons and Persons (Mid) On Bullshit (Late) Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (Late) The Philosophy of Philosophy (Late) Difference and Repetition (Différence et Répétition) (Mid) Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, vol. 1 (Late) A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, vol. 2 (Late) Écrits (Mid) The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book XI: The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (Late) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (La condition postmoderne) (Late) Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection (Pouvoirs de l'horreur) (Mid) Speculum of the Other Woman (Speculum, de l'autre femme) (Mid) Simulacra and Simulation (Simulacres et simulation) (Late) Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (Late) An Inquiry into the Good (Zen no Kenkyū) (Early) Climate and Culture (Fūdo: ningengakuteki kōsatsu) (Mid) Philosophy as Metanoetics (Zangedō to shite no tetsugaku) (Late) African Religions and Philosophy (Mid) Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective (Late) Philosophy of Liberation (Filosofía de la Liberación) (Mid) Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana) (Mid) Borderlands / La Frontera: The New Mestiza (Mid) The Idea of Latin America (Late) Toward the African Revolution (Late) After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency (Après la finitude) (Late) We Have Never Been Modern (Nous n'avons jamais été modernes) (Mid) Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network Theory (Late) Silent Spring (Late) A Sand County Almanac (Late) Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Late) The Dream of the Earth (Late) The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness (Late) Critique of Cynical Reason (Kritik der zynischen Vernunft) (Mid) The End of History and the Last Man (Mid) The Emperor's New Mind (Late) Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (Mid) Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (Mid) Ways of Worldmaking (Late) The Claim of Reason (Mid) Natural Goodness (Late) Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (Mid) Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Late) The Many Faces of Realism (Mid) The Social Construction of What? (Late) The Justification of the Good (Opravdanie dobra) (Late) The Destiny of Man (O naznachenii cheloveka) (Mid) Athens and Jerusalem (Athènes et Jérusalem) (Late) The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Essai sur la théologie mystique de l'Église d'Orient) (Mid) The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Late) Freedom of the Will (Late) An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (Mid) Orthodoxy (Mid) Mere Christianity (Mid) Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (Mid) Notes on the State of Virginia (Mid) Common Sense (Mid) The Age of Reason (Late) The Souls of Black Folk (Mid) Mind, Self, and Society (Late) The World and the Individual (Mid) The Education of Henry Adams (Late) Twenty Years at Hull-House (Late) A Theology for the Social Gospel (Late) The Long Loneliness (Late) A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (Mid) Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy (Zhi de zhijue yu Zhongguo zhexue) (Late) Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Philosophies (Dongxi wenhua ji qi zhexue) (Early) The Importance of Living (Mid) Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (Late) Religion and Nothingness (Shūkyō to wa nani ka) (Mid) The Hindu View of Life (Mid) The First and Last Freedom (Mid) Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation (Late) Being Peace (Late) Rerum Novarum (Late) Gaudium et Spes (Late) Laudato Si' (Late) The Voice of the Voiceless (Late) Church: Charism and Power (Igreja: carisma e poder) (Mid) Christ the Liberator: A View from the Victims (Late) Black Elk Speaks (Late) God Is Red: A Native View of Religion (Late) Women, Race & Class (Mid) Black Feminist Thought (Mid) Reality+ (Late (Chalmers's major popular-and-technical synthesis on virtual reality and the simulation hypothesis)) Paradiso (Divine Comedy, Cantica III) (Late) Don Quixote (El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha) (Late) Paradise Lost (Late) Gulliver's Travels (Late) An Essay on Man (Late) Ficciones (Mid) Invisible Cities (Le città invisibili) (Mid) One Hundred Years of Solitude (Cien años de soledad) (Mid) A Vision (Late) Begriffsschrift (Early) On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (Early) The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages (Mid) Foundations of a General Theory of Manifolds (Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre) (Mid) The Science of Mechanics (Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung) (Mid) The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (La Théorie physique: son objet, sa structure) (Late) Science and Hypothesis (La Science et l'hypothèse) (Late) The Philosophy of Space and Time (Philosophie der Raum-Zeit-Lehre) (Mid) Relativity: The Special and General Theory (Mid) The Essential Tension (Late) The Trial (Der Process) (Late) Ulysses (Mid) A Room of One's Own (Late) Swann's Way (Du côté de chez Swann) (Mid) The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg) (Late) Middlemarch (Late) The Sound and the Fury (Mid) Collected Poems (Late) The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (Mid) 1984 (Nineteen Eighty-Four) (Late) The Universe in a Single Atom: The Convergence of Science and Spirituality (Late) Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism (Mid) When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult Times (Late) Raja Yoga: Conquering the Internal Nature (Late) Autobiography of a Yogi (Late) The Language Instinct (Late) Syntactic Structures (Early) Metaphors We Live By (Late) Animal Liberation (Mid) Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Late) Escape from Freedom (Mid) The Sociological Imagination (Mid) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Mid) The Social Construction of Reality (Mid) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (La Distinction) (Mid) The Culture of Narcissism (Late) Liquid Modernity (Late) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Late) The Fall of Public Man (Mid) Our Mathematical Universe (Late) God in Search of Man (Late) Halakhic Man (Ish ha-Halakhah) (Mid) The Life of the Mind (Late) The Sublime Object of Ideology (Mid) A Brief History of Time (Late) Full Catastrophe Living (Late) Thinking, Fast and Slow (Late) The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (Late) Cosmopolitics (Late) The Black Swan (Late) Long Walk to Freedom (Late) The Autobiography of Malcolm X (Late) The Gulag Archipelago (Late) If This Is a Man (Se questo è un uomo) (Mid) The Unbearable Lightness of Being (Nesnesitelná lehkost bytí) (Late) Austerlitz (Late) The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy (Mid) Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Le Capital au XXIe siècle) (Late) The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Late) Second Treatise of Government (Late) Confessions (Late) On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Late) The Methods of Ethics (Late) Principia Ethica (Early) Language, Truth, and Logic (Early) The Concept of Mind (Mid) How to Do Things with Words (Late) The Blue and Brown Books (Mid) An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Late) The Division of Labor in Society (Early) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Mid) Economy and Society (Late) The Philosophy of Money (Mid) Development as Freedom (Late) The Star of Redemption (Mid) Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism (Late) On Sense and Reference (Mid) Intentionality (Mid) The Language of Thought (Mid) The Sources of Normativity (Mid) Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (Late) The Struggle for Recognition (Mid) Astronomia Nova (Mid) De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Late) A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Late) What Is Life? (Late) Computing Machinery and Intelligence (Late) A Mathematical Theory of Communication (Mid) Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Late) The Growth of Biological Thought (Late) Wonderful Life (Late) The Double Helix (Mid) Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Late) The Character of Physical Law (Mid) Experiments on Plant Hybridization (Late) Traité élémentaire de chimie (Late) The Order of Time (Late) Descartes' Error (Late) Daodejing (Early) The Art of War (Early) Mozi (Early) War and Peace (Mid) Anna Karenina (Mid) Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (Mid) On the Aesthetic Education of Man (Mid) Duino Elegies (Late) The Castle (Late) The Essays (Late) Oedipus Rex (Early) The Oresteia (Early) The Bacchae (Late) A Doll's House (Mid) The Cherry Orchard (Late) The Picture of Dorian Gray (Late) Kokoro (Late) Things Fall Apart (Mid) Disgrace (Late) The Old Man and the Sea (Late) History of the Peloponnesian War (Early) The Histories (Early) The Annals (Late) The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Late) The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Mid) The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Late) Prison Notebooks (Late) History and Class Consciousness (Mid) The State and Revolution (Late) Parallel Lives (Late) Course in General Linguistics (Late) The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (Late) The Road to Serfdom (Mid) Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Late) The Interpretation of Cultures (Late) The Logic of Practice (Late) The Construction of Reality in the Child (Mid) Thought and Language (Mid) The Mind of Primitive Man (Late) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Mid) Childhood and Society (Mid) Motivation and Personality (Mid) Attachment and Loss (Late) Envy and Gratitude (Late) Foundations of Geometry (Mid) The Home and the World (Late) The Dispossessed (Late) Mother Courage and Her Children (Late) The German Ideology (Early) The Poetics of Space (Late) Poems (Late) Sprachgitter (Mid) Requiem (Late) On Photography (Late) Ways of Seeing (Late) Camera Lucida (Late) Studies in Iconology (Late) The Story of Art (Mid) Collected Poems (Late) North (Mid) Pride and Prejudice (Mid) Bleak House (Mid) Wuthering Heights (Mid) Moby-Dick (Mid) Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Mid) The Great Gatsby (Mid) The Lord of the Rings (Late) Foundation (Mid) The Handmaid's Tale (Late) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Mid) Invisible Man (Mid) Their Eyes Were Watching God (Mid) The Fire Next Time (Mid) Midnight's Children (Mid) The Cairo Trilogy (Mid) My Name Is Red (Mid) My Brilliant Friend (Late) Gravity's Rainbow (Mid) Blood Meridian (Late) The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (Late) Ariel (Late) Canto General (Mid) Hopscotch (Mid) 2666 (Late) The Golden Notebook (Mid) Decolonising the Mind (Late) Proof of an External World (Late) Sense and Sensibilia (Late) The Unreality of Time (Late) The Analysis of Mind (Mid) The Analysis of Matter (Mid) The Analysis of Sensations (Mid) Scientific Thought (Mid) Past, Present and Future (Late) A Realist Theory of Science (Mid) The Possibility of Naturalism (Mid) A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (Early) Book of Concord (Late) Westminster Confession of Faith (Mid) On True and False Religion (Mid) On the Providence of God (Late) Christ and Culture (Late) New Testament and Mythology (Late) Beyond God the Father (Mid) God of the Oppressed (Mid) On Job (Late) Sexism and God-Talk (Mid) Jesus the Liberator (Late) The God of Life (Late) Instruction on Certain Aspects of the "Theology of Liberation" (Late) God-Christ-Church: A Practical Guide to Process Theology (Late) Process Theology: An Introductory Exposition (Mid) The Divine Relativity (Mid) Nature (Early) Self-Reliance (Mid) Civil Disobedience (Mid) Anti-Duhring (Late) Fathers and Sons (Mid) Kindred (Mid) A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (Late) A New Kind of Science (Mid) Homo Deus (Late) The Singularity Is Near (Late) Are You Living in a Computer Simulation? (Mid) Snow Crash (Mid) The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Mid) Realism with a Human Face (Late) Hyperobjects (Late) The Quadruple Object (Late) The Structure of Objects (Mid) Things and Their Parts (Mid) Writing the Book of the World (Mid) Animism: Respecting the Living World (Late) The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement (Mid) Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics (Early) Capital (Late) The Structure of the World (Late) Black Quantum Futurism: Theory and Practice (Late) More Brilliant than the Sun: Adventures in Sonic Fiction (Mid) Space Is the Place (Mid) Food of the Gods (Late) Realms of the Human Unconscious (Mid) Quantum Healing (Mid) Ageless Body, Timeless Mind (Late) The Power of Now (Late) Experiencing God (Late) The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Late (Husserl's last work, written in Freiburg under Nazi proscription)) The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Late (Bergson's last major book, written after a long convalescence)) The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language (Early-to-middle (Carnap's most polemical statement of the verificationist programme)) An Example of a New Type of Cosmological Solution to Einstein's Field Equations (Mature (the Princeton period — Gödel's only published paper in general relativity)) The Logic of the Place of Nothingness and the Religious Worldview (Late (Nishida's final completed essay, written months before his death)) Life's Philosophy: Reason and Feeling in a Deeper World (Late (Næss's closing popular statement, written at 86)) Ten Arguments for Deleting Your Social Media Accounts Right Now (Mature (Lanier's short polemical follow-up to Who Owns the Future?, 2013, and Dawn of the New Everything, 2017)) Translations and commentaries on Aristotle's Categories (Mature (the late translation programme Boethius announced and partly completed before his death)) Iggeret Teiman (Epistle to Yemen, c. 1172) and the responsa (Middle (between the Commentary on the Mishnah, 1168, and the Mishneh Torah, completed 1178)) Modern Moral Philosophy (Mature (the journal paper that reshaped Anglophone moral philosophy)) Duration and Simultaneity (Mature (the disastrous engagement with Einstein that damaged Bergson's standing among physicists)) Laughter (Early-mature (between Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution)) Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals (Late (Murdoch's longest and most ambitious philosophical book, published nine years after the Gifford Lectures)) The Bell (Early-mature (Murdoch's fourth novel, the first to establish her mature manner)) The Fragility of Goodness (Mature (the book that established Nussbaum as a major figure)) Upheavals of Thought (Late-mature (Nussbaum's magnum opus, eight years in the writing after the Gifford Lectures)) On Violence (Late (Arendt's most-cited short political essay, written in response to the 1968 student movements)) Men in Dark Times (Late (collected from essays spanning more than a decade)) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (Mature (Kripke's second major book after Naming and Necessity, 1980)) On What Matters (Late (Parfit's final, three-decade-in-the-making work — his second after Reasons and Persons, 1984)) An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution (Late (Wollstonecraft's last completed major non-fiction work, three years before her death)) Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (Early (Wollstonecraft's first published book, written from her experience as a governess and a school proprietress)) Aion (Late (one of Jung's last and most ambitious works, written in his mid-seventies)) The Red Book (Middle (the personal experimental record from which all of Jung's later theoretical work emerged)) The Undiscovered Self (Late (one of Jung's last short works, written at 82)) De Officiis (Late (Cicero's last completed philosophical work, written in the months before his proscription and execution)) De Re Publica (Mid-mature (Cicero's political philosophical synthesis, composed during the breakdown of the late Republic)) Tusculan Disputations (Late (composed in the year of Cicero's daughter's death, in his most intense period of philosophical writing)) Convention: A Philosophical Study (Early (Lewis's first book, published at 28, the year he began at UCLA)) Miracles: A Preliminary Study (Mature (after Mere Christianity and Screwtape; the most philosophical of Lewis's apologetic works)) Disputed Questions on Truth (Early-mature (Aquinas's first major work after the Sentences commentary)) On Evil (Late (Aquinas's mature treatment of evil and the passions, parallel to the Summa)) Compendium of Theology (Late (begun during the Roman regency, unfinished at Aquinas's death)) Colloquia (Mature (the work that grew through Erasmus's most productive decades and was repeatedly enlarged)) De Libero Arbitrio (Late (the treatise that publicly broke the Erasmus-Luther alliance, written after seven years of pressure for Erasmus to declare his position)) Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum) (Mature (the work that established Erasmus's international reputation and reshaped biblical scholarship)) On Learned Ignorance (Mature (the founding work of Cusa's philosophical career, composed at age 39)) The Vision of God (Mature (one of Cusa's most condensed and beautiful late works)) On Conjectures (Mature (the systematic epistemological development of the docta-ignorantia framework)) Anti-Pelagian writings (Late (Augustine's last great theological controversy, occupying the final two decades of his life)) Opus Tripartitum (Late (Eckhart's most ambitious Latin project, undertaken in the years before the 1326 trial)) Reden der Unterweisung (Early (Eckhart's first major vernacular work, written before the trials of his last decade)) Vom Edlen Menschen (Mature (probably from the Strasbourg years before the trial)) The Dialogue of Divine Providence (Late (composed in Catherine's last two years, in the midst of her efforts to reform the Church and end the Avignon papacy)) Physica and Causae et Curae (Mid-mature (Hildegard's middle period, between her three major visionary works)) Against Marcion (Mature (Tertullian's longest and most systematic work)) Against Praxeas (Late (composed in Tertullian's Montanist period but with orthodox Trinitarian content)) On the Resurrection of the Flesh (Mature (one of Tertullian's longest and most carefully argued treatises)) Kyōgyōshinshō (Mature) Tannishō (Posthumous (the principal popular source for Shinran's teaching)) Ocean of Reasoning (Mature (Tsongkhapa's major philosophical-Madhyamaka work)) Al-Hikmat al-Muta'aliya fi'l-Asfar al-'Aqliyya al-Arba'a (Late (the synthesis of his entire mature philosophy)) al-Kashf ʿan Manāhij al-Adilla (Mature) Seven Valleys and Four Valleys (Early (composed before the 1863 proclamation)) Letters to the Son of the Wolf (Last (less than a year before his 1892 death)) Jōdo Wasan (Late) My Bondage and My Freedom (Mature (Douglass's second autobiography, written after his break with Garrison and the founding of his own newspaper)) Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Late (Douglass's third autobiography, covering his post-1855 political career)) Sidereus Nuncius (Early-mid (the breakthrough that established Galileo's international reputation)) The Assayer (Mature (composed during the brief honeymoon between Galileo and the new Pope Urban VIII)) Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (Mature (composed at the height of the developing controversy with Rome)) Custer Died for Your Sins (Mature (Deloria's breakthrough book, written at 36)) The Metaphysics of Modern Existence (Mature (Deloria's most ambitious philosophical work)) Race Matters (Mature (the book that established West as a major public intellectual)) The American Evasion of Philosophy (Mature (West's major work of intellectual history, written before the Race Matters celebrity)) Democracy Matters (Late-mature (the post-9/11 sequel to the 1993 Race Matters)) Dictionnaire philosophique (Late (composed during the Ferney years)) Traité sur la tolérance (Late (the campaign-treatise of the Ferney period)) Éléments de la philosophie de Newton (Mid (the work that established Voltaire as a public intellectual of European reach)) Political Treatise (Late (Spinoza's last work, left incomplete at his death)) Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect (Early (Spinoza's first major philosophical project, left incomplete as the Ethics took shape)) Short Treatise on God (Early (Spinoza's first systematic presentation of his metaphysics, predating the Ethics)) Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (Early (Spinoza's first published work)) Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (Early (the work that launched Rousseau's career)) Julie (Mature (the literary high-point of Rousseau's career, between Social Contract and Émile)) Reveries of the Solitary Walker (Last (composed in Rousseau's final two years, after he had retreated from public life)) Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Late (Seneca's last completed major work, composed in retirement)) De Beneficiis (Mid-mature (composed during Seneca's most influential political-philosophical period)) Naturales Quaestiones (Late) De Otio (Late) De Constantia Sapientis (Mid) Rhetoric (Mature) Poetics (Mature) Topics (Mid-mature) Historia Animalium (Mature) On Generation and Corruption (Mature) The Mandarins (Mature) Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter (Mature) Old Age (Late-mature) A Very Easy Death (Late) Orlando (Mature) The Waves (Mature) Three Guineas (Late) Between the Acts (Last) Gyn/Ecology (Mature) Pure Lust (Late-mature) Japji Sahib (Mature (Nānak's foundational devotional composition)) Asa Di Var (Mature) Veritatis Splendor (Mature) Evangelium Vitae (Late-mature) Theology of the Body (Mature (the major catechetical project of John Paul II's early pontificate)) Politics and Conscience (Mature (composed during Havel's dissident period before the 1989 Velvet Revolution)) Disturbing the Peace (Late-dissident (composed three years before the Velvet Revolution)) Summer Meditations (Late (the first major post-1989 reflection on the transition from dissidence to governance)) Romans (Mature (Paul's most extensive and systematic letter)) 1 Corinthians (Mature) 2 Corinthians (Mature) Galatians (Mature) Philippians (Late) 1 Thessalonians (Early) Philemon (Late) Othello (Mature) Macbeth (Mature) Antony and Cleopatra (Mature) The Tempest (Last (probably Shakespeare's last sole-authored play)) Measure for Measure (Mature) Resistance to Civil Government (Mature) A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (Early-mature) The Maine Woods (Mature-late) A Plea for Captain John Brown (Mature) Slavery in Massachusetts (Mature) The American Scholar (Mature) Divinity School Address (Mature) Essays: First Series (Mature) Essays: Second Series (Mature) Representative Men (Mature) Soliloquies (Early) Brief Outline of Theology as a Field of Study (Mature) Translation of Plato's 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Time both has and lacks bounds depending on the level you ask at; finitude is conventional.

38 schools

On these views, the time-extent question doesn't have a single answer — time can be both finite and infinite depending on whether one asks at the level of the conditioned cosmos, the level of cosmic cycles, or the level of the unconditioned. The heat-death projection applies to the level it describes; the deeper levels are unconstrained by it.

Why these schools land hereSchools with time_extent=Both — Idealism, Sufism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sāṃkhya, Yogācāra, Advaita Vedānta in some readings, plus a few more — hold that the finitude question is itself conditional on the level of analysis. Indian cosmologies with kalpa cycles in unbounded mahākalpas are the paradigm case; Sufi waḥdat al-wujūd reaches similar structural commitments through a different vocabulary.
Works: Confessions (Early) Summa Theologiae On the Bondage of the Will Institutes of the Christian Religion (Late) Meditations on First Philosophy Pensées Fear and Trembling (Early) Mere Christianity The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) The New Testament The Quran An Essay Concerning Human Understanding City of God (Late) The Consolation of Philosophy Proslogion The Guide of the Perplexed Letters and Papers from Prison (Late) The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Late) Metaphysics of The Book of Healing (Late) An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (Late) Fides et Ratio (Late) On the Trinity (Late) Summa Contra Gentiles (Early) The German Sermons (Late) The Mystical Theology Revelations of Divine Love The Imitation of Christ Faṣl al-Maqāl (The Decisive Treatise) (Late) The Incoherence of the Philosophers Mathnawi (Late) The Zohar Two Treatises of Government (Late) The Sickness Unto Death (Late) Either/Or (Early) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Democracy in America Concluding Unscientific Postscript On Free Choice of the Will (Early) The Courage to Be The Abolition of Man Commentary on Romans (Early) The Brothers Karamazov (Late) A Letter Concerning Toleration (Late) Apologia Pro Vita Sua (Late) The Cost of Discipleship (Early) Cur Deus Homo (Late) Euthyphro (Early) Statesman (Late) Critias (Late) De Institutione Musica (On Music) (Early) De Institutione Arithmetica (On Arithmetic) (Early) Theological Tractates (Opuscula Sacra) (Mid-to-late) On the Prescription of Heretics (Pre-Montanist) On the Flesh of Christ (Mid-to-late (Montanist period)) The Adolescent (Late) A Writer's Diary (Late) On the Virgin Conception and Original Sin (Late) The Aims of the Philosophers (Middle) The Niche of Lights (Late) Redemptor Hominis (Early (papacy)) Memory and Identity (Final) Etz Chayim (Posthumous (transmission)) Sha'ar ha-Gilgulim (Posthumous (transmission)) Act and Being (Early) What Is Art? (Late) The Moment (Final (year of death)) Factory Journal (Middle) Letter to a Priest (Final) Letters (Career-spanning) On the Soul (Mid-to-late (Montanist period)) Sermons (Career-spanning (Geneva preaching)) Stromateis (Miscellanies) Against Heresies Hexaemeron (Late) Life of Moses (Late) Homilies on the Gospel of Matthew De Officiis Ministrorum (Late) Vulgate (Latin Bible translation) (Mature)

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