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Yuktiṣaṣṭikā

Nāgārjuna's c.200 Sixty Verses on Reasoning

Nāgārjuna · c. 150-250 AD · Sanskrit (Tibetan preservation) · Philosophical verse

Tradition: Madhyamaka Buddhism

Nāgārjuna's "Sixty Verses on Reasoning" — emptiness via dependent-origination

Yuktiṣaṣṭikā ('Sixty Verses on Reasoning,' c. 150-250 AD) is Nāgārjuna's 60-verse Madhyamaka exposition demonstrating the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā) by the route of reasoning (yukti) about dependent-origination (pratītyasamutpāda). The Sanskrit original is largely lost; the text survives in Tibetan translation in the Tengyur, with surviving Sanskrit fragments and a commentary by Candrakīrti (c. 600-650), and is one of the canonical Nāgārjuna 'Yukti-Corpus' (the philosophical works modern scholarship — Lindtner, Ruegg, Westerhoff — treats as authentically Nāgārjuna's). The text's distinctive contribution: where the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā establishes emptiness chapter-by-chapter through dialectical-deconstructive analysis of specific philosophical categories (causation, motion, the self, time, action and result, suffering), and where the Śūnyatāsaptati and Vigrahavyāvartanī offer compressed dialectical defences of the doctrine, the Yuktiṣaṣṭikā concentrates on demonstrating that careful reasoning (yukti) about dependent-origination — the doctrine that all phenomena arise in mutual conditional relation rather than from independent svabhāva-self-natures — is itself sufficient to bring the practitioner to recognition of emptiness. This makes the Yuktiṣaṣṭikā a particularly important text for Madhyamaka claims about the relation between reasoning, contemplative-practice, and soteriological liberation: the implication is that Madhyamaka emptiness-doctrine is not a mere metaphysical thesis but a path for the dialectical-purifying transformation of cognition. The text becomes foundational for Tibetan Madhyamaka traditions and especially for Tsongkhapa's (1357-1419) influential Prāsaṅgika-Madhyamaka synthesis, which gives great weight to the role of reasoning (rigs pa) in producing direct realisation of emptiness.

Author

Editions cited

  • Tibetan: Rigs-pa drug-cu-pa, in the Bstan-'gyur (Tengyur)
  • Sanskrit fragments collected in Lindtner, Nagarjuniana (1982)
  • Critical Tibetan-and-Sanskrit edition: Felix Erb, Sūnyatāsaptativrtti (1989)
  • English: Nagarjuna's Reason Sixty (Yuktisastika) with Chandrakirti's Commentary, trans. Joseph Loizzo (American Institute of Buddhist Studies / Columbia UP, 2007)
  • English: Lindtner translation in Master of Wisdom (Dharma Publishing, 1986)
Compare this work

School Embodiments

Buddhism · 30%
Dialectical Materialism · 5%
Mahayana Buddhism · 8%
Madhyamaka · 8%
Buddhism 30%

Major reasoning-based Madhyamaka work.

"Reasoning-based Madhyamaka." (Yuktiṣaṣṭikā)
Dialectical Materialism 5%

Dialectical-reasoning method.

"Dialectical reasoning." (Yuktiṣaṣṭikā)
Mahayana Buddhism 8%

Mahayana-Buddhist tradition.

Madhyamaka 8%

Madhyamaka tradition.

Internal Tensions

Yuktiṣaṣṭikā is part of the canonical Nāgārjuna 'Yukti-Corpus' and is particularly important for Madhyamaka claims about the soteriological role of reasoning. Tsongkhapa's Prāsaṅgika-Madhyamaka synthesis — historically dominant in the Dge-lugs and broader Tibetan-Buddhist tradition — gives the Yuktiṣaṣṭikā significant weight in establishing the relation between dialectical-reasoning practice and direct realisation of emptiness.

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I. Time

Composed c. 150-250 AD; canonical Nāgārjuna Yukti-Corpus work.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Grain: Continuous Freedom: Non-Deterministic Traversability: Linear Direction: Uni-directional Dimensionality: One
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II. Space

South Indian Andhra-region composition; transmitted to Tibet via Indo-Tibetan translation projects 8th-11th c.; subsequent Tibetan Madhyamaka traditions.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Curvature: Flat Dimensionality: Three Locality: Local
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III. Matter

Emptiness, dependent-origination, the role of reasoning (yukti) in the soteriological recognition of emptiness, the deconstruction of svabhāva-realism.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Conservation: Variable Dimensionality: Three Locality: Local
◎

IV. Observer

Nāgārjuna as foundational Madhyamaka philosopher; alongside Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the most influential Buddhist philosopher after the historical Buddha.

Attributes
Time Instance: Single Space Instance: Single Knowledge Extent: Partial Knowledge Retainment: Total Physicality: Embodied Agency: Active Number: Plural Metaphysical Agency: Impersonal
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V. Energy

Dialectical-philosophical, contemplative-pedagogical, anti-substantialist energies; emphasises reasoning as path.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Conservation: Variable Dispersibility: Reversible
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VI. Information

60 verses (ṣaṣṭi = sixty); compressed kārikā-style philosophical Sanskrit (preserved Tibetan); with Candrakīrti commentary; one of the Yukti-Corpus.

Attributes
Ontological Status: Relational Cosmic Conservation: Variable Personal Conservation: Conserved Granularity: Discrete

Personas that cite this work

Nāgārjuna

Personas with the nearest attribute fingerprint

Historical figures whose own classification on the same six-dimensional grid lands closest to this work's. Computed by attribute-agreement on coordinates both address.

74%
Rabindranath Tagore
25/34
73%
Theophrastus
22/30
72%
Hesiod
18/25
71%
Mary Daly
24/34
70%
Carneades
7/10
70%
Heraclitus of Ephesus
21/30

Computed school proximity

The work's attribute fingerprint scored against all schools using the same quiz scorer. Useful as a sanity check on the hand-curated embodiments above.

47%
Process Philosophy
18/26
42%
Anarchism
17/26
42%
Libertarian Socialism
17/26
41%
Afrofuturism
17/26
41%
Confucianism
17/26
41%
Madhyamaka
14/26
41%
Academic Scepticism
16/26
40%
Hylomorphism
18/26

How Yuktiṣaṣṭikā resolves each dilemma

26 resolved positions across 4 dimensions, including 14 distinctive where the majority of schools go the other way · 31 unaligned.

Each dimension is sorted so minority positions come first. Mainstream positions are folded into an expandable list.

Time · 9 dilemmas · 3 distinctive

Persistence, the future, and the direction of becoming.

Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (31/202)
Is the universe running out of usable energy?
The heat death of the universe — entropy maxed out, no further work possible — is among the more sobering implications of mainstream physics. Whether it is structurally inescapable depends on what kind of finitude the cosmos has.
Both time and matter are unbounded; 'running out' is misframed.
On this view, the cosmos has neither a temporal horizon nor a material exhaustion point. The framing of running out presupposes bounds that the cosmos doesn't have. Energy gradients perpetuate; new configurations emerge; the categories that make heat-death scary don't apply at the cosmic scale.
Roads not taken Time is unbounded but matter is finite; usable energy can fail without time failing. (47%) · Time both has and lacks bounds depending on the level you ask at; finitude is conventional. (26%) · The cosmos has bounds; heat death is a real horizon. (12%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (31/202)
Are natural resources fundamentally finite, or only practically so?
Whether we can grow our way out of resource constraints — or whether the cosmos sets limits the economy ultimately must obey — depends on what kind of finitude matter has.
Resources are practically inexhaustible on cosmic scales; terrestrial limits are engineering.
On this view, matter and time are both unbounded at the largest scales. Terrestrial resource limits are real engineering and political constraints but not metaphysical ones; the cosmos can in principle support whatever expansion intelligence is capable of.
Roads not taken Time goes on but matter is bounded; we are eventually constrained even with infinite time. (47%) · The finitude question is level-dependent; resource ethics happens at the level that constrains us. (26%) · Resources are finite in the strict sense; living well requires accepting the limit. (12%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (31/202)
Could we owe future generations more than is materially possible to provide?
If we owe future people a habitable planet and the material means to flourish, and the cosmos is bounded in ways that make those obligations impossible at some scale, the obligation and the possibility come apart. Where they come apart turns on what kind of finitude we live in.
Both time and matter are unbounded; we cannot in principle owe more than is possible.
On this view, the cosmos has the resources to support whatever flourishing future generations are capable of, given sufficient time and intelligence. The impossibility concern is misplaced; the real questions are about trajectories and choices, not about resource ceilings.
Roads not taken Time is unbounded but matter is not; we can owe more across long time than the matter can provide. (47%) · The owing-and-possibility question is level-dependent; we owe what is appropriate at the level we act on. (26%) · The cosmos is bounded; our obligations to future generations are bounded with it. (12%)
6 mainstream positions
Do you really choose? The future is open and you are a genuine origin of it. 69% Are addicts responsible for their addiction? The addict could have chosen otherwise — that's why recovery is real. 69% Should we hold AI systems responsible for what they do? An AI without a free will is not the kind of thing that can be responsible. 69% How much weight do future people deserve? Time arises from events or from a deeper substrate — the future is not yet. 32% Is regret rational? The past is not a thing now; regret is the present holding what is no longer. 32% Do we owe extinct species something we cannot give them? Past species no longer exist; what we owe is to the present and the future. 32%
Matter · 7 dilemmas, all mainstream
Does matter have intrinsic moral standing? — — Is the physical world fully real? — — Is the world created from nothing? — — Should we edit the human germline? — — What is a nation? — — What is money? — — What makes someone male or female? — —

Observer · 37 dilemmas · 5 distinctive

Mind, agency, and the knower's relation to the known.

Distinctive · only 5% of schools agree (11/202)
Is environmental damage ever truly permanent?
Extinction is forever; soil erosion takes centuries to repair; the carbon we emit will warm the climate for millennia. But whether 'forever' or 'millennia' means what they say depends on what kind of process the universe is.
What appears irreversible is reversible by the right action.
On this view, the appearance of permanence is a function of limits we have not yet exceeded. Divine action, sufficiently advanced technology, intentional restoration practice can in principle reverse what now appears irreversible. The lost is not gone for good; it is gone for now.
Roads not taken Damage is real and permanent on the relevant timescales. There is no recovery; there is only limitation. (66%) · Loss is part of cycles; what disappears returns in another form. (17%) · From the standpoint of the One, the categories of permanence and loss are conventional. (8%)
Distinctive · only 5% of schools agree (11/202)
Can a civilization recover from collapse?
Rome fell; Maya cities emptied; Bronze Age trade networks collapsed in a single generation. Whether what was lost can be recovered — or whether collapse is structurally final — depends on what kind of process civilization is.
Civilization is the kind of order that can in principle be restored.
On this view, the order that constitutes civilization — information, practices, institutions, ethics — is not destroyed by collapse, only dispersed. Given the right work, by humans, divine action, or both, it can be reconstituted. The historical pattern of recovery and renewal is partial evidence; …
Roads not taken Civilizational complexity is hard to build and easy to lose; recovery is at best partial. (66%) · Civilization rises and falls in cycles; recovery is structural to history. (17%) · From the One's vantage, civilizational categories are themselves conventional. (8%)
Distinctive · only 5% of schools agree (11/202)
Does the second law of thermodynamics mean something morally?
The universe trends from order to disorder. Whether that physical pattern carries moral weight — making the preservation of order, beauty, complexity a kind of cosmic duty — depends on whether time has the kind of structure morality could lean on.
Apparent entropy is reversible in principle; the moral category is restoration.
On this view, the second law describes local pattern rather than cosmic destiny. What is broken can be repaired — by divine action, by human work, by energetic intervention. The moral weight of restoration is real and not borrowed from the physics. The cosmos is …
Roads not taken Entropy is what time is. The moral weight, if any, is the weight of working against the current. (66%) · Local entropy increase is part of a cycle; the moral category is participation in the cycle. (17%) · From the One's vantage, the second law is itself a feature of the conventional, not the ultimate. (8%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
What is our place in nature?
Whether humans are masters of nature, members of nature, or makers of nature is not a question climate science can settle. It depends on what nature is, what we are, and what kind of relationship is possible between us.
Embedded in a web — partners with the more-than-human world.
On these views, humans were never outside nature, and the question of our 'place in' it is the question of how to live within the relations that already constitute us. Plants, animals, rivers, ancestors, descendants are not resources or stage scenery; they are kin and …
Roads not taken Active in a real nature — we cultivate, steward, transform. (48%) · Nature is partly what we make of it — concepts, practices, and minds shape the world. (15%) · Subject to a real natural order we did not make. (12%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
Should we colonize space?
The drive to extend human presence beyond Earth is sometimes framed as the next chapter of stewardship, sometimes as hubris, sometimes as escape from problems we ought to solve here. Which it is depends on what we take our relationship to nature to be.
Colonisation continues the work that ended the wisdom of seven-generation thinking.
On relational views, space colonisation is the abstract endpoint of the same pattern that produced ecological crisis on Earth: humans treating themselves as separate from the more-than-human world they are actually inside. To go to Mars in the spirit of leaving Earth is to leave …
Roads not taken Cultivating worlds beyond Earth is the next form of stewardship. (48%) · The 'space frontier' is partly what we make of it. (15%) · Nature includes its limits; colonisation is bounded by what the cosmos allows. (12%)
8 mainstream positions
Is genetic engineering of food stewardship or domination? Editing the genome cuts into the relational fabric; we should be very slow. 15% What happens to "you" when you die? You were always a pattern. The pattern propagates. 18% Could causation work backwards? Causation runs one way — the arrow of time is real and structural. 68% Is the asymmetry between memory and anticipation a real feature of time, or just of us? The asymmetry is real because time itself has a real direction. 68% Is the arrow of time a real feature of the cosmos, or only of how we describe it? The arrow is real and structural; the asymmetry isn't an artifact of description. 68% Should we trust expert testimony when we can't verify it? Trust expertise whose conclusions a competent mind can in principle reproduce. 32% Is religious revelation a real source of knowledge? Revelation is evaluable by reason — and not above it. 32% Does an LLM 'know' the things it correctly produces? An LLM can produce correct outputs but not reason to them; useful, not knowing. 32%
24 unaligned
Are coincidences ever more than coincidence? Schools split: 49% / 37% / 8% — Are the dead morally present to the living? Schools split: 44% / 35% / 13% — Are there indivisible units of experience? Schools split: 44% / 37% / 13% — Can prayer for someone far away affect them? Schools split: 49% / 37% / 8% — Could a fetal brain organoid in a petri dish be conscious? Schools split: 32% / 29% / 11% — Could an AI have a mind that matters? Schools split: 30% / 30% / 15% — Do animals have moral standing comparable to humans? Schools split: 32% / 29% / 11% — Does environmental harm in another country bind me morally? Schools split: 50% / 29% / 12% — Does history have a direction or meaning? Schools split: 37% / 23% / 19% — Does meditation reveal something genuinely timeless? Schools split: 46% / 33% / 13% — Does prayer change God's mind? Schools split: 46% / 33% / 13% — How is knowledge of reality produced? Schools split: 25% / 17% / 13% — If a teleporter copied and destroyed you, would you have survived? Schools split: 36% / 29% / 14% — Is divine omniscience compatible with human freedom? Schools split: 46% / 33% / 13% — Is memory stored or reconstructed? Schools split: 44% / 37% / 13% — Is reality fundamentally digital? Schools split: 44% / 37% / 13% — Is salvation, liberation, or fulfillment individual or communal? Schools split: 15% / 14% / 4% — Is the late-stage dementia patient still the person their spouse married? Schools split: 36% / 29% / 14% — Is truth universal, tradition-bound, situated, or constructed? Schools split: 65% / 16% / 10% — What is marriage? Schools split: 54% / 16% / 15% — What kind of religious-theological authority does the tradition recognize? Schools split: 44% / 16% / 14% — What makes someone the same person over time? Schools split: 36% / 29% / 14% — When does a person begin? Schools split: 54% / 16% / 15% — Who is the moral primary — the individual, the community, the cosmos, the class, or the species? Schools split: 40% / 28% / 14% —

Information · 4 dilemmas · 4 distinctive

Pattern, memory, and what is preserved or lost.

Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Is anything truly lost when someone forgets?
The memory you don't retrieve, the conversation you can't remember, the face you no longer recognise — is the forgetting a loss of something real, or just the routine operation of a finite mind?
Information persists or doesn't depending on whether the holder is sustained.
On these views, conservation is not a flat cosmic law but a function of the conditions that hold. Memory persists where it is sustained — by divine attention, by community, by ritual, by practice — and is genuinely lost where it isn't. The asymmetry between …
Roads not taken Information is lost when a mind forgets; matter and energy continue, but the pattern is gone. (51%) · Information is conserved — the personal pattern is held even when an individual mind loses it. (39%) · Forgetting is the cosmic case, not the exception; nothing is conserved. (1%)
Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Does deleting your data online destroy something real?
Account deletion, the right to be forgotten, the obsolescence of file formats, the slow decay of digital archives — whether any of this destroys something that was real depends on whether information is the kind of thing that can be destroyed.
Information persists where it is held; deletion releases what isn't held elsewhere.
On these views, information persists or doesn't depending on whether something is sustaining it. What is held in divine memory or in active communal practice continues; what is held only by the deleted artifact is genuinely released. The variable conservation maps onto a variable moral …
Roads not taken Information is genuinely lost when the substrate that hosted it goes; deletion really destroys. (51%) · Information at the cosmic level isn't destroyed; deletion only obscures access. (39%) · Nothing is fundamentally conserved; deletion is just routine impermanence. (1%)
Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Could the dead, in principle, be brought back?
If we had perfect information about who someone was — their connectome, their behavioral patterns, their history — could we, in principle, restore them? The question is partly engineering, but the ceiling on the engineering is metaphysical.
What is held by God or sustaining practice can be restored; what isn't can't.
On these views, the conservation of personal information depends on what is sustaining it. The Eastern Orthodox doctrine of resurrection holds that the person is preserved in God's memory and restored in the resurrection by divine action operating on what God has held. What is …
Roads not taken The information dissipates with the substrate; restoration is in principle impossible. (51%) · The information that constitutes a person is conserved; restoration is in principle possible. (39%) · Nothing of what was can be restored; restoration is wishful framing. (1%)
Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Is forgiveness ontologically possible?
When someone forgives, does the offense actually go away — erased, undone, no longer a fact — or does forgiveness reframe a wrong that persists exactly as it always was?
The offense persists where sustained and releases where conditionally absolved; forgiveness is real ontological work.
On these views, conservation is not a flat cosmic law but a function of what sustains. An offense persists where it is held — by holding-on, by ritual continuation, by divine attention to a particular debt — and is genuinely released where it is conditionally …
Roads not taken The offense is locally constituted by its substrate; when the substrate dissolves, the offense genuinely passes away. (51%) · The offense persists ontologically; forgiveness is real moral work, but it doesn't erase what was. (39%) · Nothing is preserved; the offense is impermanent, and holding it is the suffering. (1%)
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