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The Heart Sutra

Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya — The Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom — the shortest and most-recited Mahāyāna sūtra

Anonymous (Mahāyāna tradition; some scholars argue for a Chinese composition c. 7th century) · c. 600 AD (extant form); verses possibly earlier · Sanskrit (with influential Chinese translation by Xuanzang, 649 AD) · Short sūtra — about 260 Chinese characters in the standard recension

Tradition: Mahāyāna Buddhism / Prajñāpāramitā literature

Form is emptiness; emptiness is form — the compressed essence of the Perfection of Wisdom tradition

The Heart Sutra is the shortest, most chanted, and most consequential of the Prajñāpāramitā ("Perfection of Wisdom") sūtras. In about 260 Chinese characters (slightly longer in Sanskrit), Avalokiteśvara teaches the bodhisattva Śāriputra the heart of wisdom: that all the five aggregates of personal existence (form, sensation, perception, formation, consciousness) are empty of intrinsic nature. The famous formula — "form is emptiness; emptiness is form" — encapsulates the Madhyamaka view that emptiness is not nothingness but the truth of dependent origination. The Heart Sutra is the daily liturgical text of nearly every Mahāyāna school across China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Tibet, and has been the entry point for most twentieth-century Western readers of Buddhist philosophy.

Editions cited

  • The Heart Sutra (Red Pine [Bill Porter], Counterpoint, 2004)
  • The Heart Sūtra (Donald S. Lopez Jr., Princeton, 1996, with commentary)
  • Heart Sutra (Karl Brunnhölzl, Snow Lion, 2017)
Compare this work

School Embodiments

Buddhism · 45%
Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism · 25%
Yogacara · 10%
Pure Land Buddhism · 5%
Process Philosophy · 5%
Relationalism · 5%
Postmodernism · 5%
Buddhism 45%

The Heart Sutra is one of the most widely read and recited Buddhist texts; every Mahāyāna tradition treats it as canonical.

"Form is emptiness; emptiness is form." (Heart Sutra, central formula)
Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism 25%

The Heart Sutra is the daily Tibetan Buddhist recitation and the locus of many Tibetan commentarial traditions (Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the various Karma Kagyu and Gelug commentaries).

"Gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā — gone, gone, gone beyond, gone altogether beyond, enlightenment, hail!" (Heart Sutra, closing mantra)
Yogacara 10%

Yogācāra commentarial tradition has read the Heart Sutra as compatible with its consciousness-only metaphysics, even where Madhyamaka readings predominate.

"In emptiness there is no form, no sensation, no perception, no formation, no consciousness." (Heart Sutra)
Pure Land Buddhism 5%

East Asian Pure Land traditions chant the Heart Sutra as part of daily liturgy, even though the devotional focus is on Amitābha.

"Therefore, when the bodhisattva relies on the perfection of wisdom, his mind is unobscured." (Heart Sutra)
Process Philosophy 5%

Process philosophers have read the Heart Sutra's identification of form and emptiness as resonant with the process metaphysics of becoming.

"All dharmas are marked with emptiness; they neither arise nor cease." (Heart Sutra)
Relationalism 5%

A direct philosophical resonance: the doctrine that nothing has intrinsic nature, only dependent relations, is one of the most concise philosophical-relationalist statements in any ancient tradition.

"Avalokiteśvara perceived that all five aggregates are empty." (Heart Sutra, opening)
Postmodernism 5%

Western reception of the Heart Sutra (Robert Magliola, David Loy, comparativist readings) often pairs it with Derridean deconstruction as parallel critiques of metaphysical foundations.

"No eye, no ear, no nose, no tongue, no body, no mind." (Heart Sutra)

Internal Tensions

The historical origin of the Heart Sutra has been disputed by Jan Nattier (1992), who argued for Chinese composition rather than Indian origin — a thesis contested but widely engaged. The philosophical reading across Madhyamaka and Yogācāra commentarial traditions differs sharply on whether the negations are about the phenomenal (Yogācāra) or about all conceptual positioning whatever (Madhyamaka).

⧖

I. Time

All dharmas "neither arise nor cease" at the level of ultimate truth. Conventional time continues; wisdom sees through it without denying it.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Grain: Discrete Freedom: Deterministic Traversability: Cyclical Direction: Uni-directional Dimensionality: One
✦

II. Space

Same treatment: spatial extension is empty at ultimate analysis.

Attributes
Extent: Infinite Ontological Status: Relational Curvature: Undefined Dimensionality: Three Locality: Non-local
◉

III. Matter

The first aggregate — form (rūpa) — is explicitly declared empty. Matter is real conventionally, empty ultimately.

Attributes
Extent: Finite Ontological Status: Relational Conservation: Non-conserved Dimensionality: Three Locality: Non-local
◎

IV. Observer

No fixed self; the bodhisattva's knowledge culminates in seeing the empty character of all five aggregates. Active in the path; plural at the conventional level.

Attributes
Time Instance: Multiple Space Instance: Single Knowledge Extent: Total Knowledge Retainment: Total Physicality: Embodied Agency: Active Number: Plural Metaphysical Agency: None
⚡

V. Energy

Karmic momentum operates conventionally; the wisdom of emptiness sees through the substantial appearance of energetic processes.

Attributes
Extent: Finite Ontological Status: Emergent Conservation: Non-conserved Dispersibility: Irreversible
⧉

VI. Information

No substantival information at the ultimate level; conventional patterns of dependent origination at the conventional level.

Attributes
Ontological Status: Relational Cosmic Conservation: Non-conserved Personal Conservation: Non-conserved Granularity: Discrete

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Personas with the nearest attribute fingerprint

Historical figures whose own classification on the same six-dimensional grid lands closest to this work's. Computed by attribute-agreement on coordinates both address.

90%
Siddhārtha Gautama (the Buddha)
27/30
71%
Shinran
22/31
71%
Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama
24/34
70%
Han Feizi
14/20
67%
Pāṇini
10/15
65%
Alfred North Whitehead
22/34

Computed school proximity

The work's attribute fingerprint scored against all schools using the same quiz scorer. Useful as a sanity check on the hand-curated embodiments above.

69%
Buddhism
20/26
65%
Madhyamaka
17/26
62%
Yogacara
17/26
61%
Theravada Buddhism
17/26
60%
Process Theology
17/26
53%
Deconstruction
17/26
52%
Deep Ecology
17/26
49%
Mahayana Buddhism
14/26

How The Heart Sutra resolves each dilemma

48 resolved positions across 4 dimensions, including 37 distinctive where the majority of schools go the other way · 9 unaligned.

Each dimension is sorted so minority positions come first. Mainstream positions are folded into an expandable list.

Time · 9 dilemmas · 5 distinctive

Persistence, the future, and the direction of becoming.

Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Do you really choose?
If the brain is a physical system and physical systems are governed by laws, then every choice is also a chain of causes — which raises the question of what was really left to choose.
Choice is real within a determined order — agency and determinism aren’t opposites.
On this view, the future is determined and you are genuinely choosing. Those aren't contradictory because the determination runs through you rather than around you: your reasoning, deliberation, and assent are the way the determined outcome gets settled. Choice is what it feels like from …
Roads not taken The future is open and you are a genuine origin of it. (69%) · Choice is structural illusion — every event is fixed by the prior state. (10%) · Even if the universe is undetermined, you are not the chooser. (6%)
Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Are addicts responsible for their addiction?
Addiction looks from one angle like the textbook case of agency failing — a person doing what they don't, in any meaningful sense, want to do. From another angle it looks like agency at work in hard conditions. Which it is depends on what agency is.
The addict is genuinely responsible within a determined order.
On this view, the addict is acting within a determined order but is genuinely acting — making decisions, endorsing or resisting urges, seeking or refusing help. Responsibility attaches not because some uncaused choice happened, but because the addict is the kind of agent through which …
Roads not taken The addict could have chosen otherwise — that's why recovery is real. (69%) · The addict's behaviour is the outcome of causes; 'responsibility' is a useful fiction, not a metaphysical fact. (10%) · Even if the universe is undetermined, the addict isn't the chooser. (6%)
Distinctive · only 9% of schools agree (18/202)
Should we hold AI systems responsible for what they do?
When an autonomous AI takes an action that harms someone, the question of who or what is responsible — the developer, the operator, the model itself — turns on whether the model is the kind of thing that can be a responsible agent.
The AI can be a genuine agent within determined conditions — and therefore genuinely responsible.
On this view, what makes a being responsible is not indeterminism but the kind of process the being is. An AI that deliberates, considers consequences, can be given reasons, and modifies its behaviour on reflection is doing what responsible agency is, even if its underlying …
Roads not taken An AI without a free will is not the kind of thing that can be responsible. (69%) · An AI's behaviour is fully determined by training and input; 'responsibility' applies if at all to its makers. (10%) · Neither AIs nor anyone else are the locus of free agency; the question is the wrong one. (6%)
Distinctive · only 17% of schools agree (35/202)
How much weight do future people deserve?
If a billion people will exist in the 25th century, do their interests count for as much as the interests of a billion people alive now? The answer turns on what kind of reality the future has.
Past, present, and future are bound in cycles — duties span generations as a matter of course.
On these views, time is not a one-way arrow but a structure of return: cosmic cycles, karmic cycles, the seasons, the succession of generations. To act now is always also to act for the ancestors who shaped your inheritance and for the descendants who will …
Roads not taken Future people are as real as you are — and their interests count for as much. (47%) · Time arises from events or from a deeper substrate — the future is not yet. (32%) · The future branches — what we owe depends on which branch we create. (2%)
Distinctive · only 17% of schools agree (35/202)
Is regret rational?
If the past is fixed and unchangeable, what kind of mental act is regret? An error, a duty, a lesson, a perspective on a moment that is still in some sense present?
The past is part of a cycle one keeps returning to; regret is one of the gates of the cycle.
On cyclical views, the past is not a fixed thing behind you — it is part of the ongoing structure of return: karmic cycles, cosmic cycles, the cycle of seasons and generations. Regret, on these views, is less about an unchangeable past and more about …
Roads not taken The past is as real as the present; regret is a real attitude toward a real thing. (47%) · The past is not a thing now; regret is the present holding what is no longer. (32%) · Other branches exist; regret tracks roads not taken that are nonetheless real. (2%)
4 mainstream positions
Do we owe extinct species something we cannot give them? Past beings are part of the cycle; we owe them what we owe ancestors. 17% Is the universe running out of usable energy? Time is unbounded but matter is finite; usable energy can fail without time failing. 47% Are natural resources fundamentally finite, or only practically so? Time goes on but matter is bounded; we are eventually constrained even with infinite time. 47% Could we owe future generations more than is materially possible to provide? Time is unbounded but matter is not; we can owe more across long time than the matter can provide. 47%

Matter · 7 dilemmas · 4 distinctive

What stuff is — fundamental, relational, or appearance.

Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
What is money?
The question of what money is — a measured store of real value, an agreed-on practice, a relational ledger of debts, or just a name we apply to many different things — sits behind every argument about inflation, cryptocurrency, debt, and the state.
Money is the ledger of obligations among real people.
On relational views, money is not a substance you have; it is a record of who owes whom what. Debts and credits are real because the relations they track are real — to kin, to community, to ancestors, to land. Money is the form this …
Roads not taken Money is a real institution with intrinsic features. (54%) · Money is a social practice — its content is what we make it. (16%) · “Money” names a family of practices — the definition question is nominal. (8%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
What is a nation?
Whether a nation is a real moral community with intrinsic character, a constructed legal-political artifact, a web of kinship and shared history, an imagined community, or a conventional partition of a deeper unity — these are real ontological positions with sharply different political downstream.
A nation is the web of kinship, ancestry, and shared land that hosts a people.
On relational views, the nation is the relational fabric — extended kinship, ancestral inheritance, shared ecology, communal practice — that hosts a people across generations. Borders matter less than belonging; lineage and land carry the weight that political structures only ratify.
Roads not taken A nation is a real moral community with intrinsic character. (54%) · A nation is a constructed polity — a project, not a discovery. (16%) · “Nation” names a family of practices imaginatively held together. (8%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
What makes someone male or female?
Whether sex is a real biological kind, a constructed social category, a relational identity, a label applied to varied phenomena, or a conventional distinction within a deeper unity is the ontological question the contemporary dispute about gender is mostly about.
Sex and gender are constituted by relations of recognition.
On relational views, identity is not a property a person has alone; it is constituted by the web of recognition the person sits in. What makes someone a man or a woman in any thick sense is the relations of kinship, community, ritual, and recognition …
Roads not taken Sex is a real biological kind with given content. (54%) · Gender is constructed; what counts as male or female reflects practice. (16%) · “Male” and “female” are family-resemblance terms — no single essence. (8%)
Distinctive · only 15% of schools agree (30/202)
Should we edit the human germline?
Whether human nature is a given biological kind, a constructed category, a relational achievement, a family-resemblance cluster, or a conventional distinction within deeper unity is the ontological question the policy debate over heritable gene editing is mostly about.
Personhood is constituted by relations of descent and kinship; germline editing reshapes the relational fabric.
On relational views, what makes someone a person is the web of kinship, ancestry, and community they sit in — not a property the body carries alone. Heritable editing intervenes in exactly this fabric: the lineage that ancestors handed on, the descent that descendants will …
Roads not taken Human nature is a real biological kind given by reproductive biology or by creation; editing the germline transgresses what is given. (54%) · The categories we count as 'human' are emergent from practice; germline editing is a practice-revision like any other. (16%) · 'Human nature' is a cluster term without a single essence; the editing question is empirical, not metaphysical. (8%)
3 unaligned
Does matter have intrinsic moral standing? Schools split: 55% / 23% / 16% — Is the physical world fully real? Schools split: 55% / 23% / 16% — Is the world created from nothing? Schools split: 55% / 23% / 16% —

Observer · 37 dilemmas · 5 distinctive

Mind, agency, and the knower's relation to the known.

Distinctive · only 12% of schools agree (25/202)
Does environmental harm in another country bind me morally?
Carbon emissions in your country contribute to flooding in another. A factory's effluent across the border kills ecosystems you'll never see. Whether you bear moral weight for what happens far away turns on whether distance dilutes obligation.
Distance doesn't dilute obligation; what is real is the connection, not its length.
On this view, the obligations one bears extend across distance because the connections do. Carbon emissions, trade flows, the global supply chains we are part of, the ancestral and ecological webs that hold the planet together — these constitute real connections that distance does not …
Roads not taken Moral obligation tracks the relations one is in; distance does matter, structurally. (50%) · Distance doesn't dilute obligation; communion of saints / divine relation spans the cosmos. (29%) · Harm anywhere is harm to the One; the boundary that would have insulated you was never real. (8%)
Distinctive · only 13% of schools agree (26/202)
Are the dead morally present to the living?
Ancestor veneration, intercession with saints, the moral weight of a promise made to someone now gone — these all presuppose that the dead are present in some sense beyond memory. Whether they are turns on whether an observer is the kind of thing that exists in a single moment or across many.
Observers span moments; the dead are present in a real (not merely metaphorical) way.
On this view, an observer is not located at a single moment but extends across moments. The dead, on this signature, are not gone — they are elsewhere on the same trans-temporal structure that you yourself occupy. Ancestor veneration, intercession with saints, the moral weight …
Roads not taken Observers are bounded by their own moment, and no further agency makes the dead present. (44%) · The dead are present through divine memory, communion of saints, or ancestor presence. (35%) · From the standpoint of the One, the distinction between living and dead is conventional. (8%)
Distinctive · only 13% of schools agree (26/202)
Is divine omniscience compatible with human freedom?
If God knows what you will do tomorrow, does your tomorrow-self choose freely? The classical problem of foreknowledge turns on whether the divine vantage stands outside time or inside it.
An observer can occupy multiple times at once; foreknowledge is not foreordering.
On this view, observers can in principle exist in more than one moment simultaneously — and divine omniscience is exactly the case of an observer occupying all moments at once. The future actions God 'foresees' aren't foreseen at all in the temporal sense; God simply …
Roads not taken The observer is in time; foreknowledge across times raises real freedom problems. (46%) · The human observer is in time, but God's vantage is not — and foreknowledge is not foreordering. (33%) · Distinction of the One and observed time is itself conventional; the question dissolves. (8%)
Distinctive · only 13% of schools agree (26/202)
Does meditation reveal something genuinely timeless?
Contemplative traditions across cultures report that sustained attention reveals a level at which time as ordinary experience knows it does not apply. Whether the report is a real glimpse or a real misdescription depends on what observers can in principle be.
Meditation accesses a trans-temporal level the ordinary observer doesn't ordinarily reach.
On this view, observers can in principle exist in more than one moment, and meditation is the practice that opens that capacity. What's reported as 'timeless' is the experience of occupying moments at once — the trans-temporal mode the observer always could have inhabited but …
Roads not taken Meditators are bounded observers reporting unusual brain states; the 'timeless' is metaphorical. (46%) · Meditation participates in a real eternity — divine or cosmic — that the bounded human observer ordinarily cannot reach. (33%) · The 'timeless' is the standpoint of the One that was always present; meditation removes obstacles to seeing it. (8%)
Distinctive · only 13% of schools agree (26/202)
Does prayer change God's mind?
When you petition God for something, are you addressing a personal agent who hears and responds, participating in eternal providence, attuning yourself to what already is, or doing something that doesn't quite map onto petition?
Prayer participates in a trans-temporal liturgy or communion; the question of 'changing the mind' misses the trans-temporal mode.
On this view, the addressee of prayer — and the petitioner participating in prayer — can occupy more than one moment at once. Prayer isn't an instant of message-passing across a temporal gap; it is participation in a trans-temporal mode in which every moment of …
Roads not taken If there is an addressee at all, it is in time; prayer is communication, and may genuinely change what comes next. (46%) · God sees from outside time; prayer doesn't change God's mind, but it is part of how providence is enacted. (33%) · Prayer to a separate God presupposes a separation the non-dual view denies; the practice is remembrance and attunement. (8%)
26 mainstream positions
Is reality fundamentally digital? Yes — bits, quanta, computational substrate. 13% Are there indivisible units of experience? Yes — naturalist quanta of experience. 13% Is memory stored or reconstructed? Stored — discrete engrams, traces, weights. 13% What makes someone the same person over time? There was never a fixed self to either preserve or lose. 14% Is the late-stage dementia patient still the person their spouse married? There was no fixed person to lose; care is owed to whoever is here. 14% If a teleporter copied and destroyed you, would you have survived? There was no fixed you to either survive or fail to; the question is malformed. 14% When does a person begin? Personhood is conferred by being-in-relation. 15% What is marriage? Marriage is constituted by the web of relations it creates. 15% What is our place in nature? Embedded in a web — partners with the more-than-human world. 15% Should we colonize space? Colonisation continues the work that ended the wisdom of seven-generation thinking. 15% Is genetic engineering of food stewardship or domination? Editing the genome cuts into the relational fabric; we should be very slow. 15% Is environmental damage ever truly permanent? Loss is part of cycles; what disappears returns in another form. 17% Can a civilization recover from collapse? Civilization rises and falls in cycles; recovery is structural to history. 17% Does the second law of thermodynamics mean something morally? Local entropy increase is part of a cycle; the moral category is participation in the cycle. 17% Could causation work backwards? Time is structured as return; 'forward' and 'backward' are local features of the cycle. 17% Is the asymmetry between memory and anticipation a real feature of time, or just of us? Memory and anticipation are phases of a cycle that visits both directions. 17% Is the arrow of time a real feature of the cosmos, or only of how we describe it? Within a cycle there is a direction; across the cycle there isn't. 17% What happens to "you" when you die? You were always a pattern. The pattern propagates. 18% Can prayer for someone far away affect them? Prayer changes the pray-er, not the prayed-for. 49% Are coincidences ever more than coincidence? Coincidence is exactly what the math says it is. The pattern is in the noticer. 49% Should we trust expert testimony when we can't verify it? Defer to credentialed traditions; experts are the modern analog. 28% Is religious revelation a real source of knowledge? Revelation is the paradigm case of authoritative knowledge. 28% Does an LLM 'know' the things it correctly produces? An LLM has no soul to whom revelation could be addressed; the question doesn't apply. 28% Could an AI have a mind that matters? An AI’s standing is constituted by the relations it enters. 15% Do animals have moral standing comparable to humans? Talk of 'standing' presupposes fixed selves that animals (and we) don't have. 10% Could a fetal brain organoid in a petri dish be conscious? Asking whether the organoid is 'really' conscious presupposes a category we don't have. 10%
6 unaligned
Does history have a direction or meaning? Schools split: 37% / 23% / 19% — How is knowledge of reality produced? Schools split: 25% / 17% / 13% — Is salvation, liberation, or fulfillment individual or communal? Schools split: 15% / 14% / 4% — Is truth universal, tradition-bound, situated, or constructed? Schools split: 65% / 16% / 10% — What kind of religious-theological authority does the tradition recognize? Schools split: 44% / 16% / 14% — Who is the moral primary — the individual, the community, the cosmos, the class, or the species? Schools split: 40% / 28% / 14% —

Information · 4 dilemmas · 4 distinctive

Pattern, memory, and what is preserved or lost.

Distinctive · only 1% of schools agree (3/202)
Is anything truly lost when someone forgets?
The memory you don't retrieve, the conversation you can't remember, the face you no longer recognise — is the forgetting a loss of something real, or just the routine operation of a finite mind?
Forgetting is the cosmic case, not the exception; nothing is conserved.
On this view, neither information nor energy is fundamentally conserved. What looks like persistence is the slow rate of certain changes; what looks like forgetting is the same kind of process running at a faster rate. The loss is real everywhere; the question is just …
Roads not taken Information is lost when a mind forgets; matter and energy continue, but the pattern is gone. (51%) · Information is conserved — the personal pattern is held even when an individual mind loses it. (39%) · Information persists or doesn't depending on whether the holder is sustained. (9%)
Distinctive · only 1% of schools agree (3/202)
Does deleting your data online destroy something real?
Account deletion, the right to be forgotten, the obsolescence of file formats, the slow decay of digital archives — whether any of this destroys something that was real depends on whether information is the kind of thing that can be destroyed.
Nothing is fundamentally conserved; deletion is just routine impermanence.
On this view, neither information nor the substrate that hosts it is fundamentally conserved. Deletion is no different from the ordinary process by which everything decays. Whether to mourn it depends on whether to mourn the more general impermanence.
Roads not taken Information is genuinely lost when the substrate that hosted it goes; deletion really destroys. (51%) · Information at the cosmic level isn't destroyed; deletion only obscures access. (39%) · Information persists where it is held; deletion releases what isn't held elsewhere. (9%)
Distinctive · only 1% of schools agree (3/202)
Could the dead, in principle, be brought back?
If we had perfect information about who someone was — their connectome, their behavioral patterns, their history — could we, in principle, restore them? The question is partly engineering, but the ceiling on the engineering is metaphysical.
Nothing of what was can be restored; restoration is wishful framing.
On this view, neither the information nor the conditions that hosted it persist past the dissolution. Talk of restoration mistakes the continuity of names or roles for the continuity of the underlying being. The person is gone; any 'restoration' is a separate being whose relationship …
Roads not taken The information dissipates with the substrate; restoration is in principle impossible. (51%) · The information that constitutes a person is conserved; restoration is in principle possible. (39%) · What is held by God or sustaining practice can be restored; what isn't can't. (9%)
Distinctive · only 1% of schools agree (3/202)
Is forgiveness ontologically possible?
When someone forgives, does the offense actually go away — erased, undone, no longer a fact — or does forgiveness reframe a wrong that persists exactly as it always was?
Nothing is preserved; the offense is impermanent, and holding it is the suffering.
On this view, neither moral facts nor the substrate that hosts them are fundamentally conserved. The offense, like everything, is impermanent. Forgiveness, where it makes sense at all, is recognising that holding the offense is the suffering — not the offense itself. The release is …
Roads not taken The offense is locally constituted by its substrate; when the substrate dissolves, the offense genuinely passes away. (51%) · The offense persists ontologically; forgiveness is real moral work, but it doesn't erase what was. (39%) · The offense persists where sustained and releases where conditionally absolved; forgiveness is real ontological work. (9%)
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