School #25
Empiricism
Locke, Hume, Bacon
Empiricism holds that all substantive knowledge originates in sensory experience — the mind at birth is a blank slate (tabula rasa) that receives its content from the world through perception. Francis Bacon's 'Novum Organum' (1620) laid the methodological foundation, urging the systematic collection and analysis of observations in place of scholastic deduction from first principles. John Locke's 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding' (1689) argued that there are no innate ideas: all concepts, even the most abstract, derive ultimately from simple impressions of sensation and reflection. David Hume's 'A Treatise of Human Nature' (1739-40) radicalized empiricism by showing that even our most confident beliefs — in causation, in the external world, in the self — cannot be grounded in experience alone, since experience gives us only constant conjunction, never necessary connection. Hume's skeptical conclusions set the agenda for Kant and much of modern epistemology.
Worldview
The empiricist experiences reality as a vast, open field of observable phenomena waiting to be catalogued, compared, and organized through careful attention to what the senses actually deliver. The world feels solid and tractable but never fully revealed: each observation opens the door to further observations, and every generalization is provisional, subject to revision by the next experiment. The fundamental orientation is one of disciplined receptivity — a willingness to let the world speak on its own terms rather than imposing preconceived categories upon it. Living inside this ontology means treating every claim as an empirical hypothesis, every belief as answerable to evidence, and every authority as subordinate to what can be observed and tested. There is a democratic temperament in this position: no one's armchair intuitions outweigh another person's carefully gathered data. The framework classifies this as None: empiricism restricts knowledge to what can be observed; no personal deity, cosmic ordering principle, or operative spirits are invoked beyond what the senses deliver. The framework reads this as None for moral authority: empiricism restricts knowledge to what observation can deliver, but observation alone yields no normatively binding ought — neither Scripture, Tradition, Reason, nor Experience is enthroned as ultimate over conduct.
Moral Implications
Empiricist ethics tends toward consequentialism, since moral judgments must ultimately rest on observable outcomes — the experienced pleasures and pains, benefits and harms, that actions produce. Abstract moral principles are accepted only insofar as they reliably predict the experiential consequences of conduct. Hume's insight that one cannot derive an "ought" from an "is" introduces a permanent humility into moral reasoning: the empiricist recognizes that values are not simply read off the facts but require an additional commitment that observation alone cannot supply. Moral progress is understood as the gradual accumulation of evidence about what actually promotes human flourishing and what causes suffering. Ethical disagreement is treated as resolvable, in principle, through better observation and more honest accounting of consequences.
Practical Implications
Empiricism is the philosophical engine of modern science, experimental medicine, and evidence-based policy, insisting that all claims be tested against observation before being accepted. Technology is welcomed insofar as it extends the range and precision of human observation — microscopes, telescopes, sensors, and statistical tools all embody the empiricist commitment to letting the world speak. Environmental policy is grounded in measurable data: species counts, temperature records, pollution levels, and ecological indicators rather than abstract appeals to nature's intrinsic worth. In education, the empiricist prioritizes observation, experimentation, and critical thinking over rote memorization or argument from authority. Daily life is shaped by a habitual skepticism toward unverified claims and a preference for the testimony of direct experience.
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I. Time
Time is emergent — it is known only through the succession of sensory impressions. Hume denied that we can observe the "flow" of time itself; we observe only the sequence of events. Time is continuous, linear, uni-directional, and finite insofar as temporal knowledge is bounded by what has been or can be observed.
Attributes
Extent: Infinite
Ontological Status: Substantival
Grain: Continuous
Freedom: Non-Deterministic
Traversability: Linear
Dimensionality: One
Direction: Uni-directional
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II. Space
Space is emergent — it is known only through sensory experience of spatial relations among observed objects. The empiricist does not speculate about the ultimate nature of space beyond what observation reveals. It is flat, finite, local, and three-dimensional as far as ordinary experience discloses.
Attributes
Extent: Infinite
Ontological Status: Substantival
Curvature: Flat
Dimensionality: Three
Locality: Local
◉
III. Matter
Matter is emergent — it is known through sense experience as that which resists and presents itself to observation. The empiricist avoids metaphysical claims about matter's ultimate nature, treating it as whatever is encountered through the senses. Matter is conserved and local within the bounds of observational evidence.
Attributes
Extent: Finite
Ontological Status: Substantival
Conservation: Conserved
Dimensionality: Three
Locality: Local
◎
IV. Observer
The observer is a sensory creature — embodied, situated in one place at one time, and dependent on experience as the sole source of knowledge. Nothing is known prior to perception; the mind begins as a blank slate written upon by the senses. Direct observation is the starting point and the final court of appeal. Over time, sense impressions accumulate into a growing body of empirical knowledge that can be organized and transmitted. The observer is passive in the sense that it receives rather than constitutes reality — the world impresses itself upon the mind. Multiple observers can compare their impressions and build a shared, empirically grounded understanding.
Attributes
Time Instance: Single
Space Instance: Single
Extent of Knowledge: Mediated
Retainment of Knowledge: Partial
Physicality: Embodied
Agency: Active
Number: Plural
Metaphysical Agency: None
Moral Authority: Reason
Theological Method: N/A
⚡
V. Energy
Energy is emergent — it is a concept derived from and justified by observational evidence. Conservation holds as an empirical generalization confirmed by extensive experimental evidence. Dispersibility is irreversible as observed in thermodynamic processes.
Attributes
Extent: Finite
Ontological Status: Substantival
Conservation: Conserved
Dispersibility: Irreversible
⧉
VI. Information
Information is derived from sensory experience and accumulated through observation. Each observation adds to the accumulated store of empirical knowledge. The framework distinguishes scales: information is conserved at the cosmic scale because the accumulated empirical record builds across observers and generations, but non-conserved at the personal-identity scale — the individual bundle of sensations and memories does not survive the death of the body.
Attributes
Ontological Status: Substantival
Cosmic Conservation: Conserved
Personal Conservation: Non-conserved
Granularity: Continuous
Experiments This School Responds To (23)
Galileo's Falling Bodies
Granting the elegance, empiricists insist the conclusion still required the inclined-plane experiments to be confirmed. The thought experiment narrows the space of possible laws; observation …
The Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
The decision between continuum and atomistic electrodynamics is settled by direct observation, not by theoretical preference. A model case for how physics should be done.
Descartes' Evil Demon
The hyperbolic doubt is incoherent: any standard for genuine doubt presupposes some background of fixed belief. Hume, Reid, and the British empiricists treat the demon …
Newton's Prism Experiment
A canonical demonstration of empirical method: observation, controlled variation, decisive test. British empiricism took Newton as exemplar.
Galileo's Inclined Plane
A canonical empirical foundation for mechanics: laws of motion derived from carefully designed observation, not from Aristotelian categories.
Eratosthenes' Measurement of Earth
Foundational empirical measurement: angular observation, distance estimate, mathematical synthesis. The method generalises throughout subsequent observational astronomy.
Galileo's Moons of Jupiter
A model demonstration that careful observation can overturn entrenched theoretical commitments; British empiricism took Galileo as exemplary.
Tycho's Supernova
A model demonstration of how observational precision can overturn cosmological dogma. The methodological lesson is as important as the substantive one.
The Cogito
Even granting the Cogito, the bridge to substantive knowledge of the external world fails; Hume's skepticism dismantles the reconstructive project the Cogito anchors.
Rømer's Measurement of the Speed of Light
A canonical example of how careful observation overturns received theoretical doctrine (Cartesian instantaneity).
Torricelli's Barometer
A canonical empirical refutation: Aristotelian doctrine cannot survive direct observation. Methodological model.
Boyle's J-Tube
A model of empirical quantitative inquiry: tabulated measurements yield a clean mathematical law.
Meno's Slave Boy
The boy is being led by leading questions; the "recollection" is just guided learning. Locke and Hume reject innate-knowledge interpretations.
Galvani's Twitching Frogs
A canonical case of experimental investigation correcting an initial theoretical interpretation; methodological model for electrophysiology.
Archimedes' Eureka — The Displacement Principle
A paradigmatic empirical discovery: a sensory observation (water rising) yields a quantitative law. The method generalises immediately to all density measurements.
Archimedes' Lever Demonstrations
The ship-hauling demonstration is the empirical confirmation: the mathematical law predicts an observable outcome, and the prediction succeeds publicly and dramatically.
Hipparchus' Star Catalogue
A canonical example of systematic observation: cataloguing positions star by star, then comparing across centuries. The discovery of precession is purely empirical — it emerges …
Ptolemy's Almagest Observations
The system is grounded in decades of careful observation. Without the empirical base — Babylonian records, Hipparchus, Ptolemy's own — the model could not be …
Galen's Nerve Experiments
Galen's method — systematic dissection, controlled intervention, direct observation — is empirical science in its most demanding form. The recurrent laryngeal experiment is a controlled …
Zhang Heng's Seismoscope
A purpose-built instrument extending human perception: detecting events too faint and too distant for direct sensation. Instrumental empiricism at an early date.
Ibn al-Haytham's Camera Obscura
Ibn al-Haytham's method is explicitly experimental: he designs controlled setups, varies parameters, and draws conclusions from observations. He is often called the first true experimental …
Roger Bacon's Optics
Bacon is a proto-empiricist: he explicitly argues that experiment is a source of knowledge irreducible to deduction or authority. His optical work exemplifies the claim.
Shen Kuo's Compass Declination
A precise empirical observation — the needle's slight deviation from true north — that reveals a physical fact invisible to casual inspection. Careful measurement as …
Films Reading Through This School (3)
12 Angry Men
The film is straight empiricist procedural: evidence is the only source of knowledge of the case, and each piece of evidence has to be inspected …
Rear Window
Jeff is a working empiricist: every claim about Thorwald must be backed by what was actually seen, and the film tracks how the characters' confidence …
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World
The ship operates on empiricist principles: navigation by observation, gunnery by measured trial, medical practice by trial and dissection. Maturin's entire vocation is empiricist; Aubrey's …
Debates Where This School Is Allied (14)
The Newton–Hooke Disputes
Experimental philosopher; Royal Society curator
Galileo and the Inquisition
Mathematical natural philosopher
Voltaire–Leibniz on Theodicy
Empirical sceptic; anti-theodicist
Berkeley vs Locke on Material Substance
Representational realist
Berkeley vs Locke on Material Substance
Idealist; immaterialist
Anselm and Gaunilo on the Ontological Argument
Critical monk; defender of "the fool"
Kant and Hume
Skeptical empiricist
Wittgenstein vs Russell
Logical analyst; defender of foundational philosophy
Mill vs Whewell on Induction
Empiricist philosopher of science
Locke vs Stillingfleet
Philosopher of empirical knowledge
The Hume–Rousseau Affair
Scottish Enlightenment philosopher and historian
James vs Russell on Pragmatism
Founder of American pragmatism
James vs Russell on Pragmatism
Analytic realist
Hobbes vs Descartes
Materialist empiricist
Works that name Empiricism in their embodiments
Foundational texts that draw on this school, with each work's declared weight.
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An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
John Locke · 1689 (first ed.); fourth ed. with significant revisions 1700
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Late)
David Hume · 1748 (first published as Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding)
A Treatise of Human Nature (Early)
David Hume · Books I & II 1739; Book III 1740 (anonymously; Hume aged 28)
Novum Organum
Francis Bacon · 1620 (London; intended as Part II of the never-completed Instauratio Magna)
Indica
Al-Biruni · c. 1030 CE
Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions
Al-Muqaddasi · c. 985 CE
Notebooks (Codex Atlanticus and others) (Lifelong (the notebooks span Leonardo's entire adult career))
Leonardo da Vinci · c. 1478–1519 (across Leonardo's entire career, from Florence through Milan, Rome, and Amboise)
Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems
Al-Masudi · c. 947 CE
A System of Logic (Early (Mill's first major book, the foundation of his philosophical reputation))
John Stuart Mill · 1843 (Mill's first major book); revised through 1872 (8th edition)
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Mid-late)
David Hume · 1751
Historia Animalium (Mature)
Aristotle · c. 343-340 BC (composed during Aristotle's Lesbos period and continued at the Lyceum)
Quodlibetal Questions (Mature)
William of Ockham · c. 1322-1325
Opus Majus
Roger Bacon · c. 1267
The Spiritual Medicine
Al-Razi (Rhazes) · c. 900–925 CE
De Animalibus
Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) · c. 1258–1262
On the Measurement of the Earth (reconstructed)
Eratosthenes of Cyrene · c. 240 BCE
On Nature (fragments)
Alcmaeon of Croton · c. 5th century BCE
Geography
Strabo · c. 7 BCE – 24 CE
Novum Organon Renovatum (Late)
William Whewell · 1858
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Late)
David Hume · Drafted 1751–61; revised continuously; published posthumously 1779
Some Thoughts Concerning Education (Late)
John Locke · 1693
The Sceptical Chymist (Mid)
Robert Boyle · 1661
The Science of Mechanics (Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung) (Mid)
Ernst Mach · 1883
Experiments on Plant Hybridization (Late)
Gregor Mendel · 1866 (published in proceedings of Brünn Natural History Society)
Traité élémentaire de chimie (Late)
Antoine Lavoisier · 1789
The Analysis of Sensations (Mid)
Ernst Mach · 1886 (1st ed.); 1903 (rev. 5th ed.)
Éléments de la philosophie de Newton (Mid (the work that established Voltaire as a public intellectual of European reach))
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) · 1738 (Éléments de la philosophie de Newton, Amsterdam; revised 1741)
Journal of Researches (Early)
Charles Darwin · 1839 (first edition); 1845 (substantially revised second edition)
The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (Last)
Charles Darwin · 1881 (John Murray, London) — Darwin's last book, published months before his April 1882 death
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (Mature)
Charles Darwin · 1868 (John Murray, London); revised 1875
Commentary on the Sentences (Early)
William of Ockham · c. 1317-1319 (Oxford lectures)
An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision (Early)
George Berkeley · 1709
The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career (companion to the History))
William Whewell · 1840 (revised 1847, 1858–60)
Of Induction (Mid-career polemic)
William Whewell · 1849
Lectures on Jurisprudence (Middle)
Adam Smith · 1762-1764 (student-note reconstructions)
Essays, Moral and Political (Middle)
David Hume · 1741-1742 (revised and expanded through 1777)
On the Sacred Disease
Hippocrates (or a Hippocratic author) · c. 410–390 BCE
On the Natural Faculties
Galen · c. 175 CE
Rihla (The Travels)
Ibn Battuta (dictated to Ibn Juzayy) · 1355 (dictated at the court of Abu Inan, the Marinid sultan of Fez)
Natural History
Pliny the Elder · 77 CE
On Pneumatics
Ctesibius of Alexandria · c. 270 BCE
Attributed Sayings and Wisdom Traditions
Imhotep · c. 2650–2600 BCE (original period; surviving references from later periods)
History of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career)
William Whewell · 1837 (3 vols)
On the Philosophy of Discovery (Late-career capstone)
William Whewell · 1860
Essays on Philosophical Subjects (Posthumous)
Adam Smith · c. 1750s-1770s composition; 1795 posthumous publication
The History of England (Late)
David Hume · 1754-1761 (6 volumes, composed reverse-chronologically)
Popular Scientific Lectures (Middle)
Ernst Mach · 1895
On Liberty
John Stuart Mill · 1859
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill · 1861 (Fraser's Magazine); 1863 (book form)
The Problems of Philosophy (Early)
Bertrand Russell · 1912
A History of Western Philosophy (Late)
Bertrand Russell · 1945
Opticks (Late)
Isaac Newton · 1704 (English first edition); 1706 (Latin)
The Natural History of Religion (Late)
David Hume · 1757 (Four Dissertations)
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Early-to-late (he revised it throughout his life))
Adam Smith · 1759 (1st edition); 1790 (6th and definitive edition with substantial additions)
Why I Am Not a Christian (Mid-late)
Bertrand Russell · 1927 (lecture); 1957 (collected essays as a book)
The Principles of Psychology (Mid (the major early work; foundational for both psychology and pragmatist philosophy))
William James · 1890 (after twelve years of writing; James later said he should not have spent so much time on it)
The Logical Structure of the World (Early (Carnap's breakthrough work))
Rudolf Carnap · 1928 (Carnap's habilitation; the founding text of the Vienna Circle's constructive-philosophical programme)
Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Le Capital au XXIe siècle) (Late)
Thomas Piketty · 2013 (French); 2014 (English)
An Essay on the Principle of Population (Late)
Thomas Robert Malthus · 1798 (1st edn); 1803 (rev. 2nd edn)
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Late)
David Ricardo · 1817
Language, Truth, and Logic (Early)
A.J. Ayer · 1936
Astronomia Nova (Mid)
Johannes Kepler · 1609
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Late)
James Clerk Maxwell · 1873 (2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1891)
The Double Helix (Mid)
James D. Watson · 1968
The Character of Physical Law (Mid)
Richard Feynman · 1964 (lectures); 1965 (book)
Descartes' Error (Late)
António Damásio · 1994
The Mind of Primitive Man (Late)
Franz Boas · 1911 (1st ed.); 1938 (rev. 2nd ed.)
Essays in Radical Empiricism (Late posthumous)
William James · 1904-08 essays; collected posthumously 1912
The Descent of Man (Mature)
Charles Darwin · 1871 (John Murray, London); revised 1874
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Late)
Charles Darwin · 1872 (John Murray, London)
Constructing the World (Mid)
David J. Chalmers · 2012 (2010 Locke Lectures, Oxford)
Knowledge and Error (Late)
Ernst Mach · 1905
Arguments Against the Stoics (Reconstructed from Cicero)
Carneades (reconstructed from Cicero) · c. mid-2nd century BCE (delivered); reconstructed from Cicero, 1st century BCE
On Behalf of the Fool
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers · c. 1078
Papers in Metaphysics and Epistemology (Late)
David Lewis · 1999
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Late)
Adam Smith · 1776 (first ed.); five revised editions in Smith's lifetime
The Varieties of Religious Experience
William James · 1901–02 (Gifford Lectures, Edinburgh); 1902 (book form)
A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (Early)
George Berkeley · 1710 (Dublin, age 25)
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
Galileo Galilei · 1632 (Florence; placed on the Index of Prohibited Books later that year)
Pragmatism (Late)
William James · 1907 (from 1906 Lowell Lectures, Boston)
The Will to Believe (Mid (between Principles of Psychology and Varieties of Religious Experience))
William James · 1897 (title essay, addressed to the Philosophical Clubs of Yale and Brown, 1896)
Principles of Political Economy (Mid (Mill's major economic work))
John Stuart Mill · 1848 (1st edition); revised through 1871 (7th edition)
New Essays on Human Understanding (Late)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz · 1704 (completed; Leibniz suppressed publication after Locke's 1704 death); 1765 (posthumous publication)
Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (Early)
George Berkeley · 1713
The Reasonableness of Christianity (Late)
John Locke · 1695
The Logical Syntax of Language (Mid)
Rudolf Carnap · 1934 (German; English 1937)
Aspects of Scientific Explanation (Mid)
Carl G. Hempel · 1965
Reflections on the Revolution in France (Late)
Edmund Burke · 1790
Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (Late)
Thomas Reid · 1785
Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno à Due Nuove Scienze) (Late)
Galileo Galilei · 1638
Philosophical Letters (Lettres Philosophiques / Lettres Anglaises) (Mid)
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) · 1734
Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt) (Early)
Franz Brentano · 1874
Notes on the State of Virginia (Mid)
Thomas Jefferson · 1781-82 (composed); 1785 (Paris edn); 1787 (London edn)
The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (La Théorie physique: son objet, sa structure) (Late)
Pierre Duhem · 1906
The Philosophy of Space and Time (Philosophie der Raum-Zeit-Lehre) (Mid)
Hans Reichenbach · 1928
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Late)
Robert D. Putnam · 2000
Thinking, Fast and Slow (Late)
Daniel Kahneman · 2011
The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (Late)
Jonathan Haidt · 2012
The Black Swan (Late)
Nassim Nicholas Taleb · 2007
Second Treatise of Government (Late)
John Locke · 1689
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Late)
Jeremy Bentham · 1780 (privately printed); 1789 (published)
Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (Late)
J. L. Mackie · 1977
The Growth of Biological Thought (Late)
Ernst Mayr · 1982
Wonderful Life (Late)
Stephen Jay Gould · 1989
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Late)
Edward O. Wilson · 1975
The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (Late)
John Maynard Keynes · 1936
Attachment and Loss (Late)
John Bowlby · 1969 (vol. I); 1973 (vol. II); 1980 (vol. III)
Proof of an External World (Late)
G. E. Moore · 1939 (British Academy lecture)
The Analysis of Mind (Mid)
Bertrand Russell · 1921
Scientific Thought (Mid)
C. D. Broad · 1923
A New Kind of Science (Mid)
Stephen Wolfram · 1991-2002 (composed over 11 years); 2002 (published)
The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language (Early-to-middle (Carnap's most polemical statement of the verificationist programme))
Rudolf Carnap · 1932 (Erkenntnis 2; English trans. Arthur Pap, 1959)
Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (Early (Wollstonecraft's first published book, written from her experience as a governess and a school proprietress))
Mary Wollstonecraft · 1787 (J. Johnson, London)
Sidereus Nuncius (Early-mid (the breakthrough that established Galileo's international reputation))
Galileo Galilei · March 1610 (Venice: Tommaso Baglioni)
Dictionnaire philosophique (Late (composed during the Ferney years))
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) · 1764 (Dictionnaire philosophique portatif, Geneva; greatly expanded through 1769)
Theory of Colors (Mature)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · 1810 (J.G. Cotta, Tübingen)
Treatise on Predestination, Foreknowledge, and Future Contingents (Mature)
William of Ockham · c. 1321-24
De Motu (Mid)
George Berkeley · 1721
Our Knowledge of the External World (Mid)
Bertrand Russell · 1914
Nyaya Mukura (Mid)
Raghavendra Swami · c. 1620-1671
Théorie analytique des probabilités (Late)
Pierre-Simon Laplace · 1812 (revised 1814, 1820)
Fragments (Reconstructed)
Posidonius (reconstructed) · c. 1st century BCE (original works); testimonia from 1st c. BCE–2nd c. CE
Characters
Theophrastus · c. 319 BCE
Hayy ibn Yaqzan
Ibn Tufayl · c. 1160–1170 CE
Context (Late)
Robert Stalnaker · 2014
The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms (Final)
Charles Darwin · 1881
Letter to Pythocles (Mature)
Epicurus · c. 306-270 BC
Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology (Late)
Rudolf Carnap · 1950
The Philosophical Foundations of Physics (Late)
Rudolf Carnap · 1966 (lectures earlier)
Outlines of Pyrrhonism
Sextus Empiricus · c. 160–210 AD
Two Treatises of Government (Late)
John Locke · Written c. 1679–82; published anonymously 1689
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Mary Wollstonecraft · 1792 (London, six weeks)
Experience and Nature (Late)
John Dewey · 1925 (Carus Lectures, Chicago; revised 1929)
How to Make Our Ideas Clear
Charles Sanders Peirce · 1878 (Popular Science Monthly, January)
The Open Society and Its Enemies
Karl R. Popper · Composed 1938–1943 in New Zealand exile; published 1945 (2 vols)
A Letter Concerning Toleration (Late)
John Locke · Written in Latin 1685 in Holland; published anonymously 1689 (Latin and English)
Two Dogmas of Empiricism
Willard Van Orman Quine · 1951 (Philosophical Review)
The Subjection of Women (Late)
John Stuart Mill · Written 1860–61 with Harriet Taylor Mill's collaboration; published 1869
Deliverance from Error (Late)
Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī · c. 1108 (late in al-Ghazali's life, after returning to teaching)
A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Mid (Northampton pastorate; the major work of evangelical reflection))
Jonathan Edwards · 1746
Émile (Late)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau · 1762 (published the same year as the Social Contract; both condemned and burned by authorities)
The Interpretation of Dreams (Early (the founding work of psychoanalysis))
Sigmund Freud · 1899 (dated 1900); revised through 1929 (8th edition)
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Early-mid (after the Interpretation of Dreams))
Sigmund Freud · 1905; revised through 1924
A Vindication of the Rights of Men (Early (preceding the more famous 1792 Vindication of the Rights of Woman))
Mary Wollstonecraft · 1790 (the first major published response to Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France)
Word and Object (Mid)
W.V.O. Quine · 1960
Democracy and Education (Mid)
John Dewey · 1916
Art as Experience (Late)
John Dewey · 1934 (William James Lectures at Harvard, 1931)
The Quest for Certainty (Late)
John Dewey · 1929 (Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh, 1928-29)
The Federalist Papers (Mid)
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay · 1787-88 (Independent Journal, New York Packet, Daily Advertiser)
Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Mid)
Robert Nozick · 1974
Two Concepts of Liberty (Mid)
Isaiah Berlin · 1958 (Inaugural Lecture as Chichele Professor at Oxford)
The Hedgehog and the Fox (Mid)
Isaiah Berlin · 1953
Muqaddimah (Late)
Ibn Khaldūn (ʿAbd al-Raḥmān) · 1377
Summa Logicae (Late)
William of Ockham · c. 1323
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Late)
Mary Wollstonecraft · 1792
De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) (Mid)
Titus Lucretius Carus · c. 55 BCE
Adversus Mathematicos (Against the Mathematicians / Professors) (Late)
Sextus Empiricus · c. 180-200 CE
The Prince (Il Principe) (Late)
Niccolò Machiavelli · 1513 (first printed 1532)
Historical and Critical Dictionary (Dictionnaire Historique et Critique) (Late)
Pierre Bayle · 1697 (2nd expanded edn 1702)
The Spirit of the Laws (De l'esprit des lois) (Late)
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu · 1748
Candide (Candide, ou l'Optimisme) (Late)
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) · 1759
Preface to Lyrical Ballads (Early)
William Wordsworth · 1800 (1st version); 1802 (expanded)
Silent Spring (Late)
Rachel Carson · 1962
Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Late)
James Lovelock · 1979
Freedom of the Will (Late)
Jonathan Edwards · 1754
Common Sense (Mid)
Thomas Paine · 1776 (January)
The Age of Reason (Late)
Thomas Paine · 1794 (Part I); 1795 (Part II); 1807 (Part III)
Gulliver's Travels (Late)
Jonathan Swift · 1726
An Essay on Man (Late)
Alexander Pope · 1733-34
Science and Hypothesis (La Science et l'hypothèse) (Late)
Henri Poincaré · 1902
The Language Instinct (Late)
Steven Pinker · 1994
A Brief History of Time (Late)
Stephen Hawking · 1988
The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Late)
Naomi Klein · 2007
The Methods of Ethics (Late)
Henry Sidgwick · 1874 (1st edn); 1907 (7th, definitive)
The Concept of Mind (Mid)
Gilbert Ryle · 1949
How to Do Things with Words (Late)
J.L. Austin · 1955 (William James Lectures at Harvard); 1962 (book, posthumous)
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Late)
Nicolaus Copernicus · 1543 (published; composed 1510-30s)
What Is Life? (Late)
Erwin Schrödinger · 1943 (lectures); 1944 (book)
A Mathematical Theory of Communication (Mid)
Claude Shannon · 1948 (Bell System Technical Journal)
The Order of Time (Late)
Carlo Rovelli · 2017 (Italian); 2018 (English)
The Road to Serfdom (Mid)
Friedrich Hayek · 1944
The Construction of Reality in the Child (Mid)
Jean Piaget · 1937 (French); 1954 (English)
Motivation and Personality (Mid)
Abraham Maslow · 1954 (1st ed.); 1970 (rev. 2nd ed.)
Sense and Sensibilia (Late)
J. L. Austin · 1947-58 (lectures); 1962 (posthumous, reconstructed by G. J. Warnock)
A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (Late)
Pierre-Simon Laplace · 1814 (Essai philosophique sur les probabilités)
Realms of the Human Unconscious (Mid)
Stanislav Grof · 1975
The Assayer (Mature (composed during the brief honeymoon between Galileo and the new Pope Urban VIII))
Galileo Galilei · 1623 (Rome: Accademia dei Lincei)
Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (Mature (composed at the height of the developing controversy with Rome))
Galileo Galilei · 1615 (composed; circulated in manuscript; first published 1636 in Strasbourg)
Traité sur la tolérance (Late (the campaign-treatise of the Ferney period))
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) · 1763 (Traité sur la tolérance à l'occasion de la mort de Jean Calas)
Political Treatise (Late (Spinoza's last work, left incomplete at his death))
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza · 1675-77 (unfinished at Spinoza's 1677 death; published posthumously as part of the Opera Posthuma)
Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect (Early (Spinoza's first major philosophical project, left incomplete as the Ethics took shape))
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza · c. 1661-62 (unfinished; published posthumously in the Opera Posthuma 1677)
Rhetoric (Mature)
Aristotle · c. 350-330 BC (composed during Aristotle's mature Lyceum period)
Poetics (Mature)
Aristotle · c. 335 BC (composed during Aristotle's Lyceum period; only the book on tragedy and epic survives; the book on comedy is lost)
Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (Mid-mature)
Albert Einstein · 1916 (Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie); English translation 1920
Letter to Herodotus (Mature)
Epicurus · c. 300 BC
Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (Mid)
George Berkeley · 1732
Spirit in the World (Early)
Karl Rahner · 1939 (Geist in Welt)
The Search After Truth (Early-to-mid)
Nicolas Malebranche · 1674-75 (expanded through 1712)
The Histories
Polybius · c. 150s–130s BCE
Mathematical Commentary on Diophantus
Hypatia of Alexandria · c. 400 CE
Xunzi
Xunzi (Xun Kuang) · c. 3rd century BCE
Kitab al-Hayawan (Book of Animals) (Early)
Al-Jahiz (Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr) · c. 860
Pramanavarttika (Commentary on Valid Cognition) (Early)
Dharmakirti · c. 7th century
Micrographia (Early-career (career-defining))
Robert Hooke · 1665
Outlines of Pyrrhonism
Sextus Empiricus · c. 200 CE
Critique of Pure Reason
Immanuel Kant · 1781 (A edition); 1787 (B edition, substantially revised)
A Theory of Justice
John Rawls · 1971; revised edition 1999
Democracy in America
Alexis de Tocqueville · Volume I 1835; Volume II 1840 (based on Tocqueville's 1831–32 American journey)
Theological-Political Treatise (Early)
Baruch Spinoza · 1670 (anonymously, with false imprint)
Theaetetus (Late)
Plato · c. 369 BC (late dialogue)
Discourse on the Method (Mid (1637, in mature middle age; preceding the Meditations of 1641))
René Descartes · 1637 (published anonymously as the preface to three scientific essays — Optics, Meteorology, Geometry)
A Plain Account of Christian Perfection (Late)
John Wesley · 1766 (with revisions through 1777; published as a unified text in 1777)
On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Early)
Arthur Schopenhauer · 1813 (doctoral dissertation); 1847 (revised 2nd edition)
Representation and Reality (Mid)
Hilary Putnam · 1988
The Fixation of Belief (Early)
Charles Sanders Peirce · 1877 (Popular Science Monthly, November)
The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Early)
Karl Popper · 1934 (Logik der Forschung); 1959 English
Conjectures and Refutations (Mid)
Karl Popper · 1963
The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes (Late)
Imre Lakatos · 1978 (posthumous; key essays from 1968-71)
The Uses of Argument (Early)
Stephen Toulmin · 1958
Patterns of Discovery (Early)
Norwood Russell Hanson · 1958
Essays on Actions and Events (Mid)
Donald Davidson · 1980 (essays 1963-78)
Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (Mid)
Donald Davidson · 1984 (essays 1965-83)
Naming and Necessity (Mid)
Saul Kripke · 1972 (Princeton lectures); 1980 (book)
Counterfactuals (Early)
David Lewis · 1973
Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics (Early)
P.F. Strawson · 1959
The Feminine Mystique (Late)
Betty Friedan · 1963
Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (Late)
Diogenes Laertius · c. 3rd century CE
Discourses on Livy (Discorsi sopra la prima Deca di Tito Livio) (Late)
Niccolò Machiavelli · 1517 (published 1531)
Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence (Late)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Samuel Clarke · 1715-16
Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience) (Early)
Henri Bergson · 1889 (doctoral thesis)
Matter and Memory (Matière et Mémoire) (Mid)
Henri Bergson · 1896
Biographia Literaria (Mid)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge · 1817
Consciousness Explained (Mid)
Daniel C. Dennett · 1991
Speech Acts (Early)
John R. Searle · 1969
Reasons and Persons (Mid)
Derek Parfit · 1984
On Bullshit (Late)
Harry G. Frankfurt · 1986 (Raritan); 2005 (book)
The Philosophy of Philosophy (Late)
Timothy Williamson · 2007
Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective (Late)
Kwasi Wiredu · 1996
Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana) (Mid)
José Carlos Mariátegui · 1928
Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (Mid)
Wilfrid Sellars · 1956
Ways of Worldmaking (Late)
Nelson Goodman · 1978
Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (Mid)
Mary Midgley · 1978
Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Late)
John S. Bell · 1987 (papers 1964-86)
The Social Construction of What? (Late)
Ian Hacking · 1999
Mind, Self, and Society (Late)
George Herbert Mead · 1934 (posthumous; lectures 1928-30)
Don Quixote (El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha) (Late)
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra · 1605 (Part I); 1615 (Part II)
Begriffsschrift (Early)
Gottlob Frege · 1879
The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages (Mid)
Alfred Tarski · 1933 (Polish); 1935 (German); 1956 (English)
Relativity: The Special and General Theory (Mid)
Albert Einstein · 1916 (German); 1920 (English)
The Essential Tension (Late)
Thomas S. Kuhn · 1977
Middlemarch (Late)
George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) · 1871-72
1984 (Nineteen Eighty-Four) (Late)
George Orwell (Eric Arthur Blair) · 1949
Syntactic Structures (Early)
Noam Chomsky · 1957
Metaphors We Live By (Late)
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson · 1980
Animal Liberation (Mid)
Peter Singer · 1975
The Sociological Imagination (Mid)
C. Wright Mills · 1959
The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Mid)
Erving Goffman · 1959
Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (La Distinction) (Mid)
Pierre Bourdieu · 1979
Full Catastrophe Living (Late)
Jon Kabat-Zinn · 1990 (revised 2013)
Confessions (Late)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau · 1769 (composed); 1782-89 (posthumous)
Principia Ethica (Early)
G.E. Moore · 1903
The Blue and Brown Books (Mid)
Ludwig Wittgenstein · 1933-35 (dictations); 1958 (published posthumously)
On Sense and Reference (Mid)
Gottlob Frege · 1892
The Language of Thought (Mid)
Jerry Fodor · 1975
Computing Machinery and Intelligence (Late)
Alan Turing · 1950 (Mind)
Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Late)
Norbert Wiener · 1948 (2nd ed. 1961)
Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Late)
Joseph Schumpeter · 1942
Envy and Gratitude (Late)
Melanie Klein · 1957
The Story of Art (Mid)
Ernst Gombrich · 1950 (1st ed.); 1995 (16th ed.)
The Analysis of Matter (Mid)
Bertrand Russell · 1927
Past, Present and Future (Late)
Arthur N. Prior · 1967
A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (Early)
Jonathan Edwards · 1737
The Singularity Is Near (Late)
Ray Kurzweil · 2005
Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics (Early)
Hugh Everett III · 1957 (Reviews of Modern Physics)
The Structure of the World (Late)
Steven French · 2014
Dialogue on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor (Late)
William of Ockham · c. 1334-1346
Objects of Thought (Late)
Arthur Norman Prior · 1970-71 (drafted), 1971 (posthumous publication)
Personas with Empiricism as a declared influence
50% John Locke
50% David Hume
40% Al-Biruni
40% Al-Muqaddasi
35% Robert Hooke
35% Roger Bacon
35% Al-Razi (Rhazes)
35% Leonardo da Vinci
35% Al-Masudi
30% Daniel Kahneman
30% Hippocrates of Cos
30% Alcmaeon of Croton
25% Thomas Jefferson
25% Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)
25% Mary Wollstonecraft
25% John Stuart Mill
25% William of Ockham
25% Carl Sagan
25% Ernst Mach
25% Rudolf Carnap
25% Gaunilo of Marmoutiers
25% Ibn Khaldun
25% Robert Grosseteste
25% Ibn Battuta
25% Eratosthenes of Cyrene
25% Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder)
25% Strabo
25% Ctesibius of Alexandria
20% Benjamin Franklin
20% Bertrand Russell
20% Adam Smith
20% George Berkeley
20% Thucydides
20% Galen
20% Theophrastus
15% Charles Darwin
15% Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam
15% Thomas Hobbes
15% Herodotus
15% Carneades
15% Ibn Tufayl
15% Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus)
15% Imhotep
10% Sigmund Freud
10% William James
10% Richard Dawkins
10% Sextus Empiricus
10% Polybius
10% Posidonius
10% Al-Jahiz
10% Johannes Gutenberg (Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden)
5% Titus Lucretius Carus
5% Dharmakirti
-15% Nicolas Malebranche
How Empiricism resolves each dilemma
56 resolved positions across 4 dimensions · 1 unaligned.
Each dimension is sorted so minority positions come first. Mainstream positions are folded into an expandable list.
Time · 9 dilemmas, all mainstream
Do you really choose?
The future is open and you are a genuine origin of it.
69%
Are addicts responsible for their addiction?
The addict could have chosen otherwise — that's why recovery is real.
69%
Should we hold AI systems responsible for what they do?
An AI without a free will is not the kind of thing that can be responsible.
69%
How much weight do future people deserve?
Future people are as real as you are — and their interests count for as much.
47%
Is regret rational?
The past is as real as the present; regret is a real attitude toward a real thing.
47%
Do we owe extinct species something we cannot give them?
Extinct species are as real as we are; they have standing.
47%
Is the universe running out of usable energy?
Time is unbounded but matter is finite; usable energy can fail without time failing.
47%
Are natural resources fundamentally finite, or only practically so?
Time goes on but matter is bounded; we are eventually constrained even with infinite time.
47%
Could we owe future generations more than is materially possible to provide?
Time is unbounded but matter is not; we can owe more across long time than the matter can provide.
47%
Matter · 7 dilemmas, all mainstream
Is the world created from nothing?
Yes — matter was created and is conserved as a real substance.
56%
Is the physical world fully real?
Yes — the physical world is fully real, mind-independent, persisting.
56%
Does matter have intrinsic moral standing?
Matter is morally considerable insofar as it is created or conserved good.
56%
What is money?
Money is a real institution with intrinsic features.
55%
What is a nation?
A nation is a real moral community with intrinsic character.
55%
What makes someone male or female?
Sex is a real biological kind with given content.
55%
Should we edit the human germline?
Human nature is a real biological kind given by reproductive biology or by creation; editing the germline transgresses what is given.
55%
Observer · 37 dilemmas, all mainstream
Could causation work backwards?
Causation runs one way — the arrow of time is real and structural.
68%
Is the asymmetry between memory and anticipation a real feature of time, or just of us?
The asymmetry is real because time itself has a real direction.
68%
Is the arrow of time a real feature of the cosmos, or only of how we describe it?
The arrow is real and structural; the asymmetry isn't an artifact of description.
68%
Is environmental damage ever truly permanent?
Damage is real and permanent on the relevant timescales. There is no recovery; there is only limitation.
66%
Can a civilization recover from collapse?
Civilizational complexity is hard to build and easy to lose; recovery is at best partial.
66%
Does the second law of thermodynamics mean something morally?
Entropy is what time is. The moral weight, if any, is the weight of working against the current.
66%
Is truth universal, tradition-bound, situated, or constructed?
Truth is mind-independent, universal, accessible in principle to all.
66%
When does a person begin?
A person exists from conception — when a new being comes into existence.
55%
What is marriage?
Marriage has a given form — it’s a kind of thing we recognize, not make.
55%
What is our place in nature?
Active in a real nature — we cultivate, steward, transform.
50%
Should we colonize space?
Cultivating worlds beyond Earth is the next form of stewardship.
50%
Is genetic engineering of food stewardship or domination?
Genetic modification is cultivation by other means.
50%
Does environmental harm in another country bind me morally?
Moral obligation tracks the relations one is in; distance does matter, structurally.
50%
Can prayer for someone far away affect them?
Prayer changes the pray-er, not the prayed-for.
47%
Are coincidences ever more than coincidence?
Coincidence is exactly what the math says it is. The pattern is in the noticer.
47%
Is divine omniscience compatible with human freedom?
The observer is in time; foreknowledge across times raises real freedom problems.
46%
Does meditation reveal something genuinely timeless?
Meditators are bounded observers reporting unusual brain states; the 'timeless' is metaphorical.
46%
Does prayer change God's mind?
If there is an addressee at all, it is in time; prayer is communication, and may genuinely change what comes next.
46%
Are the dead morally present to the living?
Observers are bounded by their own moment, and no further agency makes the dead present.
43%
What kind of religious-theological authority does the tradition recognize?
The category does not apply — the school is non-religious.
42%
Who is the moral primary — the individual, the community, the cosmos, the class, or the species?
The discrete person is the moral primary.
38%
What makes someone the same person over time?
You are your body — continuity is bodily continuity.
36%
Is the late-stage dementia patient still the person their spouse married?
Same body, same person — even when the cognitive pattern has changed.
36%
If a teleporter copied and destroyed you, would you have survived?
Different body, different person — you died in the scanner.
36%
Is reality fundamentally digital?
No — continuous fields, classical limits, analog deep structure.
36%
Are there indivisible units of experience?
No — continuous Jamesian stream, phenomenological lived time.
36%
Is memory stored or reconstructed?
Reconstructed — continuous re-narrating, no fixed engrams.
36%
Does history have a direction or meaning?
History is not where the deepest truth lives.
36%
Do animals have moral standing comparable to humans?
Animal minds are real because biology is the substrate of mind.
31%
Could a fetal brain organoid in a petri dish be conscious?
Brain tissue can in principle do what brains do; the question is integration.
31%
Should we trust expert testimony when we can't verify it?
Trust expertise whose conclusions a competent mind can in principle reproduce.
31%
Is religious revelation a real source of knowledge?
Revelation is evaluable by reason — and not above it.
31%
Does an LLM 'know' the things it correctly produces?
An LLM can produce correct outputs but not reason to them; useful, not knowing.
31%
What happens to "you" when you die?
Death is genuinely the end.
29%
Could an AI have a mind that matters?
No — mind is what a biological brain does, and an LLM has no brain.
29%
How is knowledge of reality produced?
Through controlled empirical investigation.
17%
Is salvation, liberation, or fulfillment individual or communal?
—
—
Information · 4 dilemmas, all mainstream
Is anything truly lost when someone forgets?
Information is lost when a mind forgets; matter and energy continue, but the pattern is gone.
50%
Does deleting your data online destroy something real?
Information is genuinely lost when the substrate that hosted it goes; deletion really destroys.
50%
Could the dead, in principle, be brought back?
The information dissipates with the substrate; restoration is in principle impossible.
50%
Is forgiveness ontologically possible?
The offense is locally constituted by its substrate; when the substrate dissolves, the offense genuinely passes away.
50%
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