Dilemma

What makes someone male or female?

Whether sex is a real biological kind, a constructed social category, a relational identity, a label applied to varied phenomena, or a conventional distinction within a deeper unity is the ontological question the contemporary dispute about gender is mostly about.

Context

The contemporary dispute over sex and gender — what bathrooms people use, what categories sports leagues recognise, what language schools and medical institutions employ — is loud and polarising, but the disagreement at the bottom is not primarily political. It is about what sex and gender fundamentally are: real biological categories, social constructions, relational identities, family-resemblance concepts, or perspectival distinctions within a deeper unity. Schools across the atlas split on this question along the same lines they split on every other 'what is X really?' question — and like marriage and personhood, the political conclusion doesn't fall directly out of the ontological position.

Why it matters

How a tradition answers determines which institutions and practices it counts as tracking something real, which it counts as conventional choices to revisit, and what moral weight transgressions of sex/gender categories carry. As always, ontological commitments and political commitments are linked but not identical: schools sharing a stance here can differ sharply on what they think the substantive content of the relevant category is, and schools differing on the ontology can converge on shared practical positions.

The coordinates that split the schools

Information · Ontological Status Whether information is fundamental, relational, or emergent Matter · Ontological Status Whether matter is fundamental, relational, or emergent Observer · Number Whether selves are genuinely distinct, or aspects of one

The stances

Sex is a real biological kind with given content.

75 schools

On this view, biological sex is a real feature of human organisms — gametes, chromosomes, reproductive role — with a content given by reproductive biology rather than by social practice. Gender categories that track the underlying biology are tracking something real; categories that don't are misdescribing it.

Why these schools land hereSchools with the realist signature read natural kinds as real features of the world. The Abrahamic and Hindu realist traditions (Catholic, Reformed, EO, Lutheran, LDS, Islamic, Jewish, Zoroastrian, Dvaita, Sāṃkhya) supplement biological realism with an explicit theological or cosmological account of sexual difference. Confucianism and Hylomorphism via their realist signatures share the commitment. The philosophical-realist coordinate-twins (Realism, Determinism, Eternalism, OOO, Critical Realism) share the formal commitment to biological realism without the theological component. None of these schools is thereby committed to a specific political conclusion about how to treat individuals whose self-identification diverges from their biological sex.
Works: The Bhagavad Gita The Republic Timaeus (Late) Nicomachean Ethics Meditations Confessions (Early) Summa Theologiae On the Bondage of the Will Institutes of the Christian Religion (Late) Meditations on First Philosophy Pensées Ethics Phenomenology of Spirit (Early) Fear and Trembling (Early) On the Origin of Species Being and Nothingness Mere Christianity The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) The New Testament The Quran The Analects Metaphysics Leviathan An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica Capital, Volume I (Late) On Liberty The Second Sex Phaedo City of God (Late) Utilitarianism The Communist Manifesto (Early) The Consolation of Philosophy Proslogion A Theory of Justice The Guide of the Perplexed Yoga Sutras An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Late) Letters and Papers from Prison (Late) The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Late) The Varieties of Religious Experience Metaphysics of The Book of Healing (Late) An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (Late) Symposium De Anima A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (Early) Monadology (Late) Fides et Ratio (Late) Apology (Early) Phaedrus (Late) Politics On the Nature of the Gods (Late) Mencius Xunzi On the Trinity (Late) Summa Contra Gentiles (Early) The Mystical Theology Revelations of Divine Love The Imitation of Christ Faṣl al-Maqāl (The Decisive Treatise) (Late) The Incoherence of the Philosophers The Zohar De Cive (Early) Two Treatises of Government (Late) The Sickness Unto Death (Late) Either/Or (Early) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Democracy in America Theses on Feuerbach (Early) The Problems of Philosophy (Early) The Foundations of Arithmetic Experience and Nature (Late) How to Make Our Ideas Clear The Human Condition Relativity: The Special and General Theory The Selfish Gene Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Novum Organum The Open Society and Its Enemies Concluding Unscientific Postscript On Free Choice of the Will (Early) Meno (Early) A History of Western Philosophy (Late) The Courage to Be After Virtue Theory of Communicative Action The Abolition of Man Commentary on Romans (Early) Physics Theological-Political Treatise (Early) The Brothers Karamazov (Late) Existentialism Is a Humanism Opticks (Late) Theaetetus (Late) Crito (Early) Laws (Latest) A Letter Concerning Toleration (Late) The Natural History of Religion (Late) Apologia Pro Vita Sua (Late) The Cost of Discipleship (Early) Pragmatism (Late) Political Liberalism (Late) Two Dogmas of Empiricism Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (Early) Cur Deus Homo (Late) The Ethics of Ambiguity (Early) The Subjection of Women (Late) Categories The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Early-to-late (he revised it throughout his life)) Principia Mathematica (Early (both authors)) The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Late (post-crisis)) On Interpretation Gettysburg Address (Mature (Civil War)) Second Inaugural Address (Late (six weeks before assassination)) Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Mid-late (the second of the After Virtue trilogy)) The Problem of Pain (Mid (post-conversion, pre-Narnia)) Discourse on the Method (Mid (1637, in mature middle age; preceding the Meditations of 1641)) Theodicy (Late) Logical Investigations (Early (the breakthrough work that founds phenomenology)) Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology (Mid (the transcendental turn)) A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Mid (Northampton pastorate; the major work of evangelical reflection)) Divine Comedy: Inferno (Late (Dante's exile years)) A Plain Account of Christian Perfection (Late) I and Thou (Mid (the foundational statement of dialogical philosophy)) Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Mid-late (after The Human Condition, before The Life of the Mind)) Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Late (the mature systematic philosophy)) Works of Love (Late (after the pseudonymous works; the major direct theological work)) Essays: First Series (Mid (Emerson at the peak of his powers)) The Will to Believe (Mid (between Principles of Psychology and Varieties of Religious Experience)) The Nature and Destiny of Man (Mid-late (Niebuhr's major systematic work)) Adventures of Ideas (Late (Whitehead's last major book)) The Origins of Totalitarianism (Mid (Arendt's breakthrough book)) On Revolution (Late (after Eichmann in Jerusalem)) Dependent Rational Animals (Late (the explicit Thomist completion of the After Virtue trilogy)) Life Together (Mid (between the Cost of Discipleship and the prison theology)) The Copernican Revolution (Early (Kuhn's first book)) The Sovereignty of Good (Mid (her major philosophical statement, alongside Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals 1992)) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Early (the breakthrough work)) The Epistle to the Romans (Early (the breakthrough work)) The Origin of German Tragic Drama (Early (the most ambitious early work, before the Arcades Project)) The Social Contract (Late (after the two Discourses; the political conclusion of Rousseau's mature thought)) Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Mid (between the First Discourse and the Social Contract)) The Principles of Psychology (Mid (the major early work; foundational for both psychology and pragmatist philosophy)) Monologion (Early (Anselm's first major work, before the Proslogion)) Otherwise than Being (Late (the more radical successor to Totality and Infinity, 1961)) The Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean Enchiridion Militis Christiani (Early (Erasmus's first major work)) The Plague (Mid (between The Stranger and The Rebel)) Brave New World (Mid (Huxley's breakthrough novel)) The Perennial Philosophy (Late (Huxley's mature spiritual-philosophical synthesis)) The Doors of Perception (Late) Ideas and Opinions (Late (the most comprehensive single-volume collection)) Science and the Modern World (Mid (the major statement of philosophical-cultural critique, preceding the technical metaphysics of Process and Reality)) The Concept of Nature (Early-mid (preceding Science and the Modern World, 1925)) Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry (Late (third volume of the After Virtue trilogy)) Letter from Birmingham Jail (Mid (the canonical theological-political document)) Strength to Love (Mid (the major collection of sermons)) The Need for Roots (Posthumous) Sanctorum Communio (Earliest (Bonhoeffer's dissertation at age 21)) Love and Responsibility (Early (his major pre-papal work; drawn from pastoral and academic teaching)) The Acting Person (Mid (his major academic-philosophical work, before his 1978 papal election)) Hind Swaraj (Early (the founding text of Gandhi's mature political-philosophical vision)) Mishneh Torah (Mid (the major legal work, between the early Commentary on the Mishnah and the late Guide of the Perplexed)) Sister Outsider (Mid (the major prose collection of Lorde's career)) Tales of the Hasidim (Late (Buber's mature engagement with the Hasidic tradition)) A Black Theology of Liberation (Early (the systematic founding text of the field)) The Cross and the Lynching Tree (Late (Cone's major late book)) Gitanjali (Mid (the Nobel-winning collection)) Sadhana: The Realisation of Life (Mid (the major philosophical prose statement)) No Future Without Forgiveness (Late (the major reflective work after the TRC)) No Exit (Mid (alongside Being and Nothingness)) Critique of Dialectical Reason (Late (Sartre's major late philosophical work)) Crime and Punishment (Mid (the first of Dostoevsky's great late novels)) The Idiot (Mid (after Crime and Punishment, before Demons and Karamazov)) Demons (Mid-late (the third of the four great novels)) Moral Man and Immoral Society (Early-mid (Niebuhr's breakthrough book that established Christian realism)) The Irony of American History (Late (Niebuhr's major Cold War political-theological book)) Lectures on the Philosophy of History (Late (Berlin lectures of the 1820s, his mature mature)) Lectures on Aesthetics (Late (Berlin lectures)) Liber Divinorum Operum (Late (the culmination of her visionary trilogy)) On Christian Doctrine (Mid-late (composed across three decades)) Principles of Political Economy (Mid (Mill's major economic work)) A System of Logic (Early (Mill's first major book, the foundation of his philosophical reputation)) Time and the Other (Early (the breakthrough early work, before Totality and Infinity)) Difficult Freedom (Mid (alongside Totality and Infinity)) Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (Late (Berlin lectures)) De Brevitate Vitae (Mid) De Providentia (Late) Prior and Posterior Analytics On the Heavens On Nature (Fragments) Parisian Questions (Mid-late) Discourse on Metaphysics (Mid (Leibniz's breakthrough philosophical statement)) New Essays on Human Understanding (Late) Praise of Folly (Mid (Erasmus's most widely read book)) Adagia (Long (composed across Erasmus's entire mature career)) Psychological Types (Mid (the major systematic work after his 1912-13 break with Freud)) Modern Man in Search of a Soul (Mid-late (mature systematic statement)) The Interpretation of Dreams (Early (the founding work of psychoanalysis)) Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Early-mid (after the Interpretation of Dreams)) Mrs Dalloway (Mid (the first major modernist novel of Woolf's maturity)) To the Lighthouse (Mid (Woolf at the height of her powers)) Hamlet (Mid (mature middle period)) King Lear (Mid-late (the major tragedies)) Tristes Tropiques (Mid (Lévi-Strauss's most widely read book)) Kitáb-i-Íqán (Mid (pre-declaration in 1863)) Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Late (the major late doctrinal-legal book)) Death and the King's Horseman (Mid (the major play of Soyinka's career)) The Savage Mind (Mid (the systematic statement of structural anthropology)) Structural Anthropology (Mid (the methodological consolidation)) Reason, Truth and History (Mid (the major mid-career book, the systematic statement of internal realism)) What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? (Mid (Douglass at the height of his oratorical powers)) Ninety-Five Theses (Early (the founding act of the Reformation)) On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (Early (1520, foundational year)) The Waste Land (Mid (the canonical modernist poem)) Tradition and the Individual Talent (Early (Eliot's major early critical statement)) Convivio (Mid (early years of exile, preceding the Comedy)) Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (Mid-late (Averroes's major systematic philosophical defence)) The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (Late (the mature systematic statement of archetypal psychology)) A Time for Choosing (Early (launched Reagan's political career)) Tear Down This Wall (Late (Reagan presidency at its rhetorical peak)) A Vindication of the Rights of Men (Early (preceding the more famous 1792 Vindication of the Rights of Woman)) Faust, Part I (Mid (composed across Goethe's career; Part I the major mid-career work)) The Power of the Powerless (Mid (Havel as principal Charter 77 dissident)) First Inaugural Address (Mid (the inauguration after twelve years of Republican presidency)) On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Early) Parerga and Paralipomena (Late) Provincial Letters (Late) An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Mid-late) Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (Early) Achieving Our Country (Late) Representation and Reality (Mid) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (Late) Symphonia harmoniae caelestium revelationum (Mid-late) Gravitation (Mid-late) It from Bit / Information, Physics, Quantum (Late) A Cyborg Manifesto (Mid) Staying with the Trouble (Late) Beloved (Mid (the Pulitzer-winning major novel)) Playing in the Dark (Mid-late) The Sea of Fertility (Late (the major late work, completed the day of his 1970 ritual suicide)) The Reasonableness of Christianity (Late) Creation and Fall (Early-mid) The Lion and the Jewel (Early) Myth, Literature and the African World (Mid) Psychology and Alchemy (Late) Answer to Job (Late) Peace with God (Early-mid) Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum) (Mid) Principles of Nature and Grace (Late) De Tranquillitate Animi (Mid-late) De Vita Beata (Mid-late) Eudemian Ethics Parmenides Sophist Man's Search for Meaning (Mid-late) Systematic Theology (Mid) Island (Late) The Prophetic Faith (Late) Eclipse of God (Late) Commentary on the Mishnah (Early-mid) Anasakti Yoga: The Gita According to Gandhi (Mid-late) The Symbolism of Evil (Early) Freedom and Nature: The Voluntary and the Involuntary (Early) Time and Narrative (Late) Oneself as Another (Late) Memory, History, Forgetting (Late) Writing and Difference (Early) Word and Object (Mid) Civilization and Its Discontents (Late) The Future of an Illusion (Late) Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Late) Dialectic of Enlightenment (Mid) Negative Dialectics (Late) Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (Mid) Eclipse of Reason (Mid) One-Dimensional Man (Late) Eros and Civilization (Mid) Theses on the Philosophy of History (Late) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (Late) The Wretched of the Earth (Late) Black Skin, White Masks (Early) Knowledge and Human Interests (Early) Between Facts and Norms (Late) The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Mid) Truth and Method (Mid) Gender Trouble (Early) Bodies That Matter (Early) Orientalism (Mid) Culture and Imperialism (Late) Can the Subaltern Speak? (Mid) Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Early) Democracy and Education (Mid) Art as Experience (Late) The Quest for Certainty (Late) The Fixation of Belief (Early) The Philosophy of Loyalty (Late) Modes of Thought (Late) A Theology of Liberation (Early (Gutiérrez's breakthrough work; the founding text of the school)) Symbols of Transformation (Early (the 1912 break-from-Freud book; revised in 1952 as the mature statement of analytical psychology's mythopoeic register)) The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Early (Lévi-Strauss's breakthrough work; the foundation of structural anthropology)) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Late (Næss's mature statement; the systematic expansion of his 1973 "shallow vs deep ecology" essay)) The Conscious Mind (Early (Chalmers's breakthrough book, derived from his 1993 Indiana PhD)) Tool-Being (Early (Harman's breakthrough work, derived from his 1999 DePaul PhD)) On the Plurality of Worlds (Late (Lewis's mature systematic statement of the modal-realist programme)) Time and Modality (Early (Prior's first major synthesis of tense logic, derived from his 1955-56 Oxford Locke Lectures)) Guru Granth Sahib The Avesta The Book of Mormon The Kephalaia The Odu Ifá Corpus Church Dogmatics (Mid) Foundations of Christian Faith (Late) The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics (Late) Jesus Christ and Mythology (Late) Theology of the New Testament (Late) A Community of Character (Mid) Theology of Hope (Early) Systematic Theology (Late) The Politics of Jesus (Mid) The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Early) Conjectures and Refutations (Mid) The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes (Late) Against Method (Mid) The Logical Syntax of Language (Mid) Aspects of Scientific Explanation (Mid) Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (Late) The Uses of Argument (Early) Patterns of Discovery (Early) The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (Mid) The Visible and the Invisible (Late) The Prose of the World (Mid) Being Given (Late) The Essence of Manifestation (Early) Heretical Essays in the Philosophy of History (Late) Finite and Eternal Being (Late) Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values (Mid) The Mystery of Being (Late) Philosophy (Mid) Philosophy of Existence (Late) Essays on Actions and Events (Mid) Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (Mid) Naming and Necessity (Mid) Counterfactuals (Early) Mind and World (Late) Making It Explicit (Mid) Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (Mid) Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics (Early) Intention (Mid) Truth and Other Enigmas (Mid) Reflections on the Revolution in France (Late) The Federalist Papers (Mid) Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Mid) Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Early) Spheres of Justice (Mid) Sources of the Self (Mid) A Secular Age (Late) Two Concepts of Liberty (Mid) The Hedgehog and the Fox (Mid) The Concept of the Political (Mid) Mahāyānasaṃgraha (Mid) Śrī Bhāṣya (Mid) Anuvyākhyāna (Mid) Shōbōgenzō (Late) Wild Ivy (Itsumadegusa) (Late) Attaining Enlightenment in This Very Existence (Sokushin Jōbutsu Gi) (Early) Lam rim chen mo (The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment) (Mid) Inquiry on the Great Learning (Daxue Wen) (Late) Zhuzi Yulei (Conversations of Master Zhu, Arranged Topically) (Late) The Life Divine (Late) Kitāb al-Najāt (Book of Salvation) (Mid) Kitāb al-Ishārāt wa-l-Tanbīhāt (Remarks and Admonitions) (Late) Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam (Bezels of Wisdom) (Late) al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revelations) (Late) al-Ḥikma al-Mutaʿāliya fī l-Asfār al-ʿAqliyya al-Arbaʿa (Transcendent Wisdom in the Four Intellectual Journeys) (Late) Ḥikmat al-Ishrāq (The Philosophy of Illumination) (Mid) Mabādiʾ Ārāʾ Ahl al-Madīna al-Fāḍila (Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City) (Mid) Fī l-Falsafa al-Ūlā (On First Philosophy) (Early) Muqaddimah (Late) Itinerarium Mentis in Deum (The Mind's Road to God) (Mid) Ordinatio (Late) Summa Logicae (Late) De Docta Ignorantia (On Learned Ignorance) (Late) The Divine Names (De Divinis Nominibus) (Late) The Life of Moses (De Vita Moysis) (Late) Periphyseon (On the Division of Nature) (Mid) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Late) The Feminine Mystique (Late) Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Mid) Frontiers of Justice (Late) Justice and the Politics of Difference (Mid) Omnipotence and Other Theological Mistakes (Late) Christ in a Pluralistic Age (Mid) Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (Late) Ethics (Ethik) (Late) Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color (Mid) On Nature and Purifications (Fragments) (Early) On Nature (Fragments) (Early) Discourses (Diatribai) (Mid) Enchiridion (Handbook) (Late) De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) (Mid) Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (Late) Moralia (Ēthika) (Late) Isagoge (Introduction to Aristotle's Categories) (Late) Adversus Mathematicos (Against the Mathematicians / Professors) (Late) On First Principles (Peri Archōn / De Principiis) (Early) On the Incarnation (De Incarnatione Verbi Dei) (Early) On the Holy Spirit (De Spiritu Sancto) (Late) Theological Orations (Orations 27-31) (Mid) Ambigua to John (Ambigua ad Iohannem) (Late) Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (De Fide Orthodoxa) (Late) Hymns of Divine Love (Hymnoi tōn Theiōn Erōtōn) (Late) Triads (Triads in Defense of the Holy Hesychasts) (Late) The Pillar and Ground of the Truth (Mid) The Bride of the Lamb (Late) Sic et Non (Yes and No) (Early) Didascalicon (On the Study of Reading) (Early) The Dark Night (La Noche Oscura) (Late) The Interior Castle (Castillo Interior) (Late) Ars Magna (Ars Generalis Ultima) (Late) The Mirror of Simple Souls (Le Mirouer des Simples Âmes) (Late) Oration on the Dignity of Man (Oratio de hominis dignitate) (Mid) The Prince (Il Principe) (Late) Discourses on Livy (Discorsi sopra la prima Deca di Tito Livio) (Late) On the Infinite Universe and Worlds (De l'Infinito Universo e Mondi) (Late) Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno à Due Nuove Scienze) (Late) The Sceptical Chymist (Mid) Historical and Critical Dictionary (Dictionnaire Historique et Critique) (Late) New Science (Late) The Spirit of the Laws (De l'esprit des lois) (Late) Candide (Candide, ou l'Optimisme) (Late) Philosophical Letters (Lettres Philosophiques / Lettres Anglaises) (Mid) Utopia (De Optimo Reipublicae Statu deque Nova Insula Utopia) (Mid) The Passions of the Soul (Les Passions de l'âme) (Late) Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence (Late) Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience) (Early) Matter and Memory (Matière et Mémoire) (Mid) Creative Evolution (L'évolution créatrice) (Late) Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt) (Early) The Christian Faith (Der christliche Glaube) (Late) Biographia Literaria (Mid) Preface to Lyrical Ballads (Early) A Confession (Ispoved') (Late) Leaves of Grass (Late) Faust, Part Two (Faust: Der Tragödie zweiter Teil) (Late) Consciousness Explained (Mid) The Construction of Social Reality (Late) Speech Acts (Early) The View from Nowhere (Mid) Warranted Christian Belief (Late) An Essay on Free Will (Mid) Reasons and Persons (Mid) On Bullshit (Late) Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (Late) The Philosophy of Philosophy (Late) Difference and Repetition (Différence et Répétition) (Mid) Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, vol. 1 (Late) A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, vol. 2 (Late) Écrits (Mid) The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book XI: The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (Late) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (La condition postmoderne) (Late) Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection (Pouvoirs de l'horreur) (Mid) Speculum of the Other Woman (Speculum, de l'autre femme) (Mid) Simulacra and Simulation (Simulacres et simulation) (Late) Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (Late) An Inquiry into the Good (Zen no Kenkyū) (Early) Climate and Culture (Fūdo: ningengakuteki kōsatsu) (Mid) Philosophy as Metanoetics (Zangedō to shite no tetsugaku) (Late) African Religions and Philosophy (Mid) Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective (Late) Philosophy of Liberation (Filosofía de la Liberación) (Mid) Seven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana) (Mid) Borderlands / La Frontera: The New Mestiza (Mid) The Idea of Latin America (Late) Toward the African Revolution (Late) After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency (Après la finitude) (Late) We Have Never Been Modern (Nous n'avons jamais été modernes) (Mid) Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network Theory (Late) Silent Spring (Late) A Sand County Almanac (Late) Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Late) The Dream of the Earth (Late) The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness (Late) Critique of Cynical Reason (Kritik der zynischen Vernunft) (Mid) The End of History and the Last Man (Mid) The Emperor's New Mind (Late) Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (Mid) Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (Mid) Ways of Worldmaking (Late) The Claim of Reason (Mid) Natural Goodness (Late) Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (Mid) Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Late) The Many Faces of Realism (Mid) The Social Construction of What? (Late) The Justification of the Good (Opravdanie dobra) (Late) The Destiny of Man (O naznachenii cheloveka) (Mid) Athens and Jerusalem (Athènes et Jérusalem) (Late) The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Essai sur la théologie mystique de l'Église d'Orient) (Mid) The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Late) Freedom of the Will (Late) An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (Mid) Orthodoxy (Mid) Mere Christianity (Mid) Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (Mid) Notes on the State of Virginia (Mid) Common Sense (Mid) The Age of Reason (Late) The Souls of Black Folk (Mid) Mind, Self, and Society (Late) The World and the Individual (Mid) The Education of Henry Adams (Late) Twenty Years at Hull-House (Late) A Theology for the Social Gospel (Late) The Long Loneliness (Late) A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (Mid) Intellectual Intuition and Chinese Philosophy (Zhi de zhijue yu Zhongguo zhexue) (Late) Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Philosophies (Dongxi wenhua ji qi zhexue) (Early) The Importance of Living (Mid) Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (Late) Religion and Nothingness (Shūkyō to wa nani ka) (Mid) The Hindu View of Life (Mid) The First and Last Freedom (Mid) Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation (Late) Being Peace (Late) Rerum Novarum (Late) Gaudium et Spes (Late) Laudato Si' (Late) The Voice of the Voiceless (Late) Church: Charism and Power (Igreja: carisma e poder) (Mid) Christ the Liberator: A View from the Victims (Late) Black Elk Speaks (Late) God Is Red: A Native View of Religion (Late) Women, Race & Class (Mid) Black Feminist Thought (Mid) Reality+ (Late (Chalmers's major popular-and-technical synthesis on virtual reality and the simulation hypothesis)) Paradiso (Divine Comedy, Cantica III) (Late) Don Quixote (El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha) (Late) Paradise Lost (Late) Gulliver's Travels (Late) An Essay on Man (Late) Ficciones (Mid) Waiting for Godot (En attendant Godot) (Mid) Invisible Cities (Le città invisibili) (Mid) One Hundred Years of Solitude (Cien años de soledad) (Mid) A Vision (Late) Begriffsschrift (Early) On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (Early) The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages (Mid) Foundations of a General Theory of Manifolds (Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre) (Mid) The Science of Mechanics (Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung) (Mid) The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (La Théorie physique: son objet, sa structure) (Late) Science and Hypothesis (La Science et l'hypothèse) (Late) The Philosophy of Space and Time (Philosophie der Raum-Zeit-Lehre) (Mid) Relativity: The Special and General Theory (Mid) The Essential Tension (Late) The Trial (Der Process) (Late) Ulysses (Mid) A Room of One's Own (Late) Swann's Way (Du côté de chez Swann) (Mid) The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg) (Late) Middlemarch (Late) The Sound and the Fury (Mid) Collected Poems (Late) The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (Mid) 1984 (Nineteen Eighty-Four) (Late) The Universe in a Single Atom: The Convergence of Science and Spirituality (Late) Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism (Mid) When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult Times (Late) Raja Yoga: Conquering the Internal Nature (Late) Autobiography of a Yogi (Late) The Language Instinct (Late) Syntactic Structures (Early) Metaphors We Live By (Late) Animal Liberation (Mid) Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Late) Escape from Freedom (Mid) The Sociological Imagination (Mid) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Mid) The Social Construction of Reality (Mid) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (La Distinction) (Mid) The Culture of Narcissism (Late) Liquid Modernity (Late) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Late) The Fall of Public Man (Mid) Our Mathematical Universe (Late) God in Search of Man (Late) Halakhic Man (Ish ha-Halakhah) (Mid) The Life of the Mind (Late) The Sublime Object of Ideology (Mid) A Brief History of Time (Late) Full Catastrophe Living (Late) Thinking, Fast and Slow (Late) The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (Late) Cosmopolitics (Late) The Black Swan (Late) Long Walk to Freedom (Late) The Autobiography of Malcolm X (Late) The Gulag Archipelago (Late) If This Is a Man (Se questo è un uomo) (Mid) The Unbearable Lightness of Being (Nesnesitelná lehkost bytí) (Late) Austerlitz (Late) The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy (Mid) Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Le Capital au XXIe siècle) (Late) The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Late) Second Treatise of Government (Late) Confessions (Late) An Essay on the Principle of Population (Late) On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Late) The Methods of Ethics (Late) Principia Ethica (Early) Language, Truth, and Logic (Early) The Concept of Mind (Mid) How to Do Things with Words (Late) The Blue and Brown Books (Mid) An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Late) The Division of Labor in Society (Early) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Mid) Economy and Society (Late) The Philosophy of Money (Mid) Development as Freedom (Late) The Star of Redemption (Mid) Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism (Late) On Sense and Reference (Mid) Intentionality (Mid) The Language of Thought (Mid) The Sources of Normativity (Mid) Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (Late) The Struggle for Recognition (Mid) Astronomia Nova (Mid) De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Late) A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Late) What Is Life? (Late) Computing Machinery and Intelligence (Late) A Mathematical Theory of Communication (Mid) Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Late) The Growth of Biological Thought (Late) Wonderful Life (Late) The Double Helix (Mid) Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Late) The Character of Physical Law (Mid) Experiments on Plant Hybridization (Late) Traité élémentaire de chimie (Late) Descartes' Error (Late) The Art of War (Early) Mozi (Early) War and Peace (Mid) Anna Karenina (Mid) Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (Mid) On the Aesthetic Education of Man (Mid) Duino Elegies (Late) The Oresteia (Early) The Bacchae (Late) A Doll's House (Mid) The Cherry Orchard (Late) Kokoro (Late) Things Fall Apart (Mid) Disgrace (Late) History of the Peloponnesian War (Early) The Histories (Early) The Annals (Late) The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Late) The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Mid) The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Late) Prison Notebooks (Late) History and Class Consciousness (Mid) The State and Revolution (Late) Parallel Lives (Late) Course in General Linguistics (Late) The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (Late) The Road to Serfdom (Mid) Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Late) The Interpretation of Cultures (Late) The Logic of Practice (Late) The Construction of Reality in the Child (Mid) Thought and Language (Mid) The Mind of Primitive Man (Late) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Mid) Childhood and Society (Mid) Motivation and Personality (Mid) Attachment and Loss (Late) Envy and Gratitude (Late) Foundations of Geometry (Mid) The Home and the World (Late) The Dispossessed (Late) Mother Courage and Her Children (Late) The German Ideology (Early) The Poetics of Space (Late) On Photography (Late) Ways of Seeing (Late) Studies in Iconology (Late) The Story of Art (Mid) Pride and Prejudice (Mid) Bleak House (Mid) Wuthering Heights (Mid) Moby-Dick (Mid) Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Mid) The Great Gatsby (Mid) The Lord of the Rings (Late) Foundation (Mid) Their Eyes Were Watching God (Mid) Midnight's Children (Mid) The Cairo Trilogy (Mid) My Name Is Red (Mid) My Brilliant Friend (Late) Gravity's Rainbow (Mid) Blood Meridian (Late) The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (Late) Canto General (Mid) Hopscotch (Mid) 2666 (Late) Decolonising the Mind (Late) Proof of an External World (Late) Sense and Sensibilia (Late) Scientific Thought (Mid) Past, Present and Future (Late) A Realist Theory of Science (Mid) The Possibility of Naturalism (Mid) A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (Early) Book of Concord (Late) Westminster Confession of Faith (Mid) On True and False Religion (Mid) On the Providence of God (Late) Christ and Culture (Late) New Testament and Mythology (Late) Beyond God the Father (Mid) God of the Oppressed (Mid) On Job (Late) Sexism and God-Talk (Mid) Jesus the Liberator (Late) The God of Life (Late) Instruction on Certain Aspects of the "Theology of Liberation" (Late) Anti-Duhring (Late) Fathers and Sons (Mid) A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (Late) A New Kind of Science (Mid) Homo Deus (Late) The Singularity Is Near (Late) Are You Living in a Computer Simulation? (Mid) Snow Crash (Mid) Realism with a Human Face (Late) Hyperobjects (Late) The Quadruple Object (Late) The Structure of Objects (Mid) Things and Their Parts (Mid) Writing the Book of the World (Mid) Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics (Early) Capital (Late) Food of the Gods (Late) Experiencing God (Late) The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language (Early-to-middle (Carnap's most polemical statement of the verificationist programme)) An Example of a New Type of Cosmological Solution to Einstein's Field Equations (Mature (the Princeton period — Gödel's only published paper in general relativity)) Ten Arguments for Deleting Your Social Media Accounts Right Now (Mature (Lanier's short polemical follow-up to Who Owns the Future?, 2013, and Dawn of the New Everything, 2017)) Translations and commentaries on Aristotle's Categories (Mature (the late translation programme Boethius announced and partly completed before his death)) Iggeret Teiman (Epistle to Yemen, c. 1172) and the responsa (Middle (between the Commentary on the Mishnah, 1168, and the Mishneh Torah, completed 1178)) Modern Moral Philosophy (Mature (the journal paper that reshaped Anglophone moral philosophy)) Duration and Simultaneity (Mature (the disastrous engagement with Einstein that damaged Bergson's standing among physicists)) Laughter (Early-mature (between Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution)) Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals (Late (Murdoch's longest and most ambitious philosophical book, published nine years after the Gifford Lectures)) The Bell (Early-mature (Murdoch's fourth novel, the first to establish her mature manner)) The Fragility of Goodness (Mature (the book that established Nussbaum as a major figure)) Upheavals of Thought (Late-mature (Nussbaum's magnum opus, eight years in the writing after the Gifford Lectures)) On Violence (Late (Arendt's most-cited short political essay, written in response to the 1968 student movements)) Men in Dark Times (Late (collected from essays spanning more than a decade)) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (Mature (Kripke's second major book after Naming and Necessity, 1980)) On What Matters (Late (Parfit's final, three-decade-in-the-making work — his second after Reasons and Persons, 1984)) An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution (Late (Wollstonecraft's last completed major non-fiction work, three years before her death)) Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (Early (Wollstonecraft's first published book, written from her experience as a governess and a school proprietress)) Aion (Late (one of Jung's last and most ambitious works, written in his mid-seventies)) The Red Book (Middle (the personal experimental record from which all of Jung's later theoretical work emerged)) The Undiscovered Self (Late (one of Jung's last short works, written at 82)) De Officiis (Late (Cicero's last completed philosophical work, written in the months before his proscription and execution)) De Re Publica (Mid-mature (Cicero's political philosophical synthesis, composed during the breakdown of the late Republic)) Tusculan Disputations (Late (composed in the year of Cicero's daughter's death, in his most intense period of philosophical writing)) Convention: A Philosophical Study (Early (Lewis's first book, published at 28, the year he began at UCLA)) Miracles: A Preliminary Study (Mature (after Mere Christianity and Screwtape; the most philosophical of Lewis's apologetic works)) Disputed Questions on Truth (Early-mature (Aquinas's first major work after the Sentences commentary)) On Evil (Late (Aquinas's mature treatment of evil and the passions, parallel to the Summa)) Compendium of Theology (Late (begun during the Roman regency, unfinished at Aquinas's death)) Colloquia (Mature (the work that grew through Erasmus's most productive decades and was repeatedly enlarged)) De Libero Arbitrio (Late (the treatise that publicly broke the Erasmus-Luther alliance, written after seven years of pressure for Erasmus to declare his position)) Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum) (Mature (the work that established Erasmus's international reputation and reshaped biblical scholarship)) Anti-Pelagian writings (Late (Augustine's last great theological controversy, occupying the final two decades of his life)) The Dialogue of Divine Providence (Late (composed in Catherine's last two years, in the midst of her efforts to reform the Church and end the Avignon papacy)) Physica and Causae et Curae (Mid-mature (Hildegard's middle period, between her three major visionary works)) Against Marcion (Mature (Tertullian's longest and most systematic work)) Against Praxeas (Late (composed in Tertullian's Montanist period but with orthodox Trinitarian content)) On the Resurrection of the Flesh (Mature (one of Tertullian's longest and most carefully argued treatises)) Kyōgyōshinshō (Mature) Tannishō (Posthumous (the principal popular source for Shinran's teaching)) Al-Hikmat al-Muta'aliya fi'l-Asfar al-'Aqliyya al-Arba'a (Late (the synthesis of his entire mature philosophy)) al-Kashf ʿan Manāhij al-Adilla (Mature) Letters to the Son of the Wolf (Last (less than a year before his 1892 death)) Jōdo Wasan (Late) My Bondage and My Freedom (Mature (Douglass's second autobiography, written after his break with Garrison and the founding of his own newspaper)) Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Late (Douglass's third autobiography, covering his post-1855 political career)) Sidereus Nuncius (Early-mid (the breakthrough that established Galileo's international reputation)) The Assayer (Mature (composed during the brief honeymoon between Galileo and the new Pope Urban VIII)) Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (Mature (composed at the height of the developing controversy with Rome)) Custer Died for Your Sins (Mature (Deloria's breakthrough book, written at 36)) Race Matters (Mature (the book that established West as a major public intellectual)) The American Evasion of Philosophy (Mature (West's major work of intellectual history, written before the Race Matters celebrity)) Democracy Matters (Late-mature (the post-9/11 sequel to the 1993 Race Matters)) Dictionnaire philosophique (Late (composed during the Ferney years)) Traité sur la tolérance (Late (the campaign-treatise of the Ferney period)) Éléments de la philosophie de Newton (Mid (the work that established Voltaire as a public intellectual of European reach)) Political Treatise (Late (Spinoza's last work, left incomplete at his death)) Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect (Early (Spinoza's first major philosophical project, left incomplete as the Ethics took shape)) Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (Early (Spinoza's first published work)) Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (Early (the work that launched Rousseau's career)) Julie (Mature (the literary high-point of Rousseau's career, between Social Contract and Émile)) Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Late (Seneca's last completed major work, composed in retirement)) De Beneficiis (Mid-mature (composed during Seneca's most influential political-philosophical period)) Naturales Quaestiones (Late) De Otio (Late) De Constantia Sapientis (Mid) Rhetoric (Mature) Poetics (Mature) Topics (Mid-mature) Historia Animalium (Mature) On Generation and Corruption (Mature) The Mandarins (Mature) Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter (Mature) Old Age (Late-mature) A Very Easy Death (Late) Orlando (Mature) Three Guineas (Late) Between the Acts (Last) Gyn/Ecology (Mature) Japji Sahib (Mature (Nānak's foundational devotional composition)) Asa Di Var (Mature) Veritatis Splendor (Mature) Evangelium Vitae (Late-mature) Theology of the Body (Mature (the major catechetical project of John Paul II's early pontificate)) Politics and Conscience (Mature (composed during Havel's dissident period before the 1989 Velvet Revolution)) Disturbing the Peace (Late-dissident (composed three years before the Velvet Revolution)) Summer Meditations (Late (the first major post-1989 reflection on the transition from dissidence to governance)) Romans (Mature (Paul's most extensive and systematic letter)) 1 Corinthians (Mature) 2 Corinthians (Mature) Galatians (Mature) Philippians (Late) 1 Thessalonians (Early) Philemon (Late) Othello (Mature) Macbeth (Mature) Antony and Cleopatra (Mature) The Tempest (Last (probably Shakespeare's last sole-authored play)) Measure for Measure (Mature) Resistance to Civil Government (Mature) A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (Early-mature) The Maine Woods (Mature-late) A Plea for Captain John Brown (Mature) Slavery in Massachusetts (Mature) The American Scholar (Mature) Divinity School Address (Mature) Essays: Second Series (Mature) Representative Men (Mature) Brief Outline of Theology as a Field of Study (Mature) Translation of Plato's dialogues (Mature) The Christian Faith (Mature) Surprised by Joy (Late-mature) The Allegory of Love (Mature) The Discarded Image (Last) Sartre: Romantic Rationalist (Early) The Sea, The Sea (Late-mature) The Black Prince (Mature) A Pluralistic Universe (Late) Some Remarks on Logical Form (Transitional) Eyeless in Gaza (Mid-mature) Brave New World Revisited (Late) Purgatorio (Mature) De Vulgari Eloquentia (Mid-mature) De Monarchia (Late) The Descent of Man (Mature) The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Late) Journal of Researches (Early) The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (Last) The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (Mature) Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (Mid-mature) The World as I See It (Mid-mature) Religion and Science (Mid-mature) Out of My Later Years (Late) The Born-Einstein Letters (Mature-late) Letter to Herodotus (Mature) Principal Doctrines (Mature) Parable of the Sower (Mature) Parable of the Talents (Late-mature) Cur Deus Homo (Late-mature) On Truth (Mature) On Free Will (Mature) Faust I (Mature) Faust II (Last) Theory of Colors (Mature) Italian Journey (Late-mature retrospective) Discourse on Metaphysics (Mature) The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence (Last) Jesus and the Disinherited (Mature) Go Tell It on the Mountain (Early) Notes of a Native Son (Mid-mature) Giovanni's Room (Mid-mature) A Madman's Diary (Mid-mature) The True Story of Ah Q (Mature) The Sea of Fertility (Last) Patriotism (Mid-mature) Consequences of Pragmatism (Mid) Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth (Mid) Judgment Under Uncertainty (Mid) Noise: A Flaw in Human Judgment (Late) Words and Life (Late) Jewish Philosophy as a Guide to Life (Late) Choices, Values, and Frames (Mid) Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam (Late) Quantum Theory and Measurement (Mid) A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime (Late) The Gathering Storm (Late) Their Finest Hour (Late) A History of the English-Speaking Peoples (Late) The Black Unicorn (Mid) A Burst of Light (Late) The Bluest Eye (Mid) Sula (Mid) Jazz (Late) Primate Visions (Mid) Simians, Cyborgs, and Women (Mid) Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan©_Meets_OncoMouse™ (Late) Laboratory Life (Early) Death and the King's Horseman (Mid) Myth, Literature and the African World (Mid) The Iliad, or the Poem of Force (Late) Reflections on the Causes of Liberty and Social Oppression (Early) An Introduction to Zen Buddhism (Mid) Faṣl al-Maqāl (The Decisive Treatise) (Mature) Declaration of Independence (Early) Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (Early) A Summary View of the Rights of British America (Early) The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth (Late) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Late) You Learn by Living (Late) Tomorrow Is Now (Late) Shabuhragan (Mature) Living Gospel (Evangelium Vivum) (Mature) Treasure of Life (Mature) Book of Mysteries (Mature) Poor Richard's Almanack (Mid) Experiments and Observations on Electricity (Mid) Fīhi mā Fīhi (Discourses) (Late) Maktūbāt (Letters) (Mature) Majālis-i Sabʿa (Seven Sermons) (Mature) Brahma-Sūtra-Bhāṣya (Mature) Mahābhārata-Tātparya-Nirṇaya (Mature) Viṣṇu-Tattva-Nirṇaya (Mature) Tattvodyota (Mature) The Book of Songs (Shijing) (Early) The Book of Documents (Shujing) (Early) The Book of Rites (Liji) (Mid) The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) (Early) A Dance of the Forests (Early) Kongi's Harvest (Mid) The Open Sore of a Continent (Late) You Must Set Forth at Dawn (Late) Bidāyat al-Mujtahid (Mature) Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Mid) 21 Lessons for the 21st Century (Mid) Nexus: A Brief History of Information Networks (Late) Sapiens: A Graphic History (Late) Ethics for the New Millennium (Late) The Art of Happiness (Late) Murder in the Cathedral (Mid) The Idea of a Christian Society (Mid) Approaching Hoofbeats (Mid) Quodlibetal Questions (Mature) Treatise on Predestination, Foreknowledge, and Future Contingents (Mature) Dialogue on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor (Late) Commentary on the Sentences (Early) Formal Logic (Early) Past, Present and Future (Mature) Papers on Time and Tense (Late) Objects of Thought (Late) Atlantis (Mid) Lanquidity (Late) The Magic City (Mid) Sun Ra Discography (Late) The Great World-System (Megas Diakosmos) (Mature) On the Mind (Mature) On Forms (Peri Ideōn) (Mature) Maria, or The Wrongs of Woman (Late) Original Stories from Real Life (Early) Cosmos (Mid) Pale Blue Dot (Late) The Dragons of Eden (Mid) The Demon-Haunted World (Late) Evangelii Gaudium (Late) Laudato Si' (Late) Amoris Laetitia (Late) Fratelli Tutti (Late) Quantum Theory (Early) Causality and Chance in Modern Physics (Mid) The Undivided Universe (Late) Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (Late) Essays on the Gita (Mature) On the Postcolony (Mid) Critique of Black Reason (Late) Necropolitics (Mature) Brutalism (Late) Bal-i Jibril (Gabriel's Wing) (Late) Javid Nama (Book of Eternity) (Late) An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision (Early) De Motu (Mid) Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (Mid) Siris (Late) Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (Mid) Original Sin (Late) The End for Which God Created the World (Late) The Nature of True Virtue (Late) De Veritate (On Truth) (Mid) De Casu Diaboli (On the Fall of the Devil) (Mid) De Processione Spiritus Sancti (On the Procession of the Holy Spirit) (Late) The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea (Mature) Spring Snow (Late) The Blind Watchmaker (Mid) The Extended Phenotype (Mid) The God Delusion (Late) The Ancestor's Tale (Late) Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Early) Teaching to Transgress (Mid) All About Love (Late) The Will to Change (Late) The Crisis of Western Philosophy (Early) Lectures on Divine Humanity (Mid) The Meaning of Love (Late) Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Basic Laws of Arithmetic) (Mature) Der Gedanke (The Thought) (Late) Posthumous Writings (Posthumous) Function and Concept (Mature) The Raw and the Cooked (Mature) From Honey to Ashes (Mature) The Origin of Table Manners (Mature) The Naked Man (Late) We Drink from Our Own Wells (Mid) The Power of the Poor in History (Mid) Dasam Granth (Mature) Zafarnama (Mature) The Mind and its Place in Nature (Mid) Examination of McTaggart's Philosophy (Mature) Five Types of Ethical Theory (Mid) Lectures on Psychical Research (Late) Commentary on John (Mature) Commentary on Genesis (Mature) Commentary on Wisdom (Mature) The Temple of Dawn (Late) The Way of the Masks (Late) Self-Made Men (Mid-Late) West India Emancipation (Mid) Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Mid) Living Faith (Late) Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis (Late) Sources of Strength: Meditations on Scripture for a Living Faith (Late) The Audacity of Hope (Mid) A Promised Land (Late) 2004 Democratic National Convention Keynote Address (Early) Rivonia Trial Statement (Mid) Inaugural Address (Late) Letters from Prison (Mid) Doctrine and Covenants (Mid) The Pearl of Great Price (Mid) King Follett Discourse (Late) Articles of Faith (Mid) Commentaries on the Bible (Mature) Geneva Catechism (Mid) Ecclesiastical Ordinances of Geneva (Mature) Brief Instruction Against the Anabaptists (Mid) De Legibus (On the Laws) (Mature) Academica (Academic Skepticism) (Mature) De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum (Mature) Kitāb al-Shifāʾ (Book of Healing) (Mature) al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb (Canon of Medicine) (Mature) Kitāb al-Najāt (Book of Salvation) (Mature) Ilāhiyyāt (Metaphysics of the Shifāʾ) (Mature) Essay on Conic Sections (Early) Pascal-Fermat Correspondence on Probability (Mid) De l'Esprit Géométrique (Mid) Practical Ethics (Mid) How Are We to Live? (Mid) The Expanding Circle (Mid) The Life You Can Save (Late) Rules for the Direction of the Mind (Early) Principles of Philosophy (Mature) Correspondence with Princess Elisabeth (Late) Stride Toward Freedom (Early) Why We Can't Wait (Mid) Where Do We Go from Here (Late) The Drum Major Instinct (Late) The Principles of Mathematics (Early) Our Knowledge of the External World (Mid) Mysticism and Logic (Mid) Human, All Too Human (Mid) Daybreak (Mid) Untimely Meditations (Early) Studies on Hysteria (Early) Totem and Taboo (Mid) The Ego and the Id (Late) Moses and Monotheism (Late) Psychology of the Unconscious (Early) Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (Mid) Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle (Late) A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Mature) Capital, Volume II (Late) Capital, Volume III (Late) Grundrisse (Mature) Pali Canon: Vinaya Pitaka (Early) Wild Seed (Mid) Dawn (Mid) Fledgling (Late) Bloodchild and Other Stories (Mid) Anthropic Bias (Early) Global Catastrophic Risks (Mid) God Is Red (Mid) Red Earth, White Lies (Late) Spirit and Reason (Late) Evolution, Creationism, and Other Modern Myths (Late) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Late) Interpretation and Preciseness (Mid) Spinoza and Ecology (Mid) Reclaiming Reality (Mid) Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom (Late) Tablets to the Political Leaders (Mature) Tabernacle of Unity (Late) Words of Paradise (Kalimát-i-Firdawsiyyih) (Late) The Field of Zen (Late) Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (Early) Zen and Japanese Culture (Mid-Late) Edition of Jerome (Mature) Edition of Augustine (Late) Edition of Origen (Late) Edition of Cyprian (Mature) Reagan, In His Own Hand (Mid) The Reagan Diaries (Late) Evil Empire Speech (Late) RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (Late) The Real War (Late) Leaders (Late) A World Transformed (Late) All the Best (Late) Thousand Points of Light (Mid) Crippled America: How to Make America Great Again (Late) Larger and Smaller Catechisms (Mature) Luther German Bible (Mature) Lectures on Galatians (Mature) Lectures on Genesis (Late) Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (Early) De Corpore (Late) De Homine (Late) Behemoth (Late) The Hidden God (De Deo Abscondito) (Mid) On the Beryl (De Beryllo) (Mature) On the Not-Other (De Non Aliud) (Late) The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time (Early) The Universe in a Nutshell (Mid) The Grand Design (Late) Brief Answers to the Big Questions (Late) Isis Unveiled (Early) The Secret Doctrine (Mature) The Key to Theosophy (Late) Call to Arms (Nahan) (Mid) Old Tales Retold (Gushi Xinbian) (Late) Yuishinshō Mon'i (Mature) Kōsō Wasan (Mature) Shōzōmatsu Wasan (Late) Mattōshō (Late) Standard Sermons (Mid-to-late) Notes Upon the New Testament (Mid) A Compendium of Natural Philosophy (Late) The Arminian Magazine (Late) Spirit in the World (Early) Hearer of the Word (Early) Theological Investigations (Mid-to-late) On the Theology of Death (Mid) Deep Is the Hunger (Mid) Meditations of the Heart (Mid) The Search for Common Ground (Late) Crying in the Wilderness (Mid) Hope and Suffering (Mid) The Rainbow People of God (Late) God Is Not a Christian (Late) The Search After Truth (Early-to-mid) Treatise on Nature and Grace (Mid) Dialogues on Metaphysics and on Religion (Mid-to-late) Treatise on Morality (Mid) On the Problem of Empathy (Early) Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities (Early) The Science of the Cross (Late) Essays on Woman (Mid) Parimala (Mid) Tatparya Chandrika (Mid) Nyaya Mukura (Mid) Bhagavata Tatparya commentary (Mid) The Character of Consciousness (Mid) Constructing the World (Mid) Living in Truth (Mid) Exposition du système du monde (Mid) Traité de mécanique céleste (Mid-to-late) Théorie analytique des probabilités (Late) The Fabric of Reality (Mid) The Beginning of Infinity (Late) Sidh Gosht (Mid) Babar Vani (Mid) Janamsakhi traditions (Post-Nānak transmission) The Artwork of the Future (Early) Opera and Drama (Early-to-Middle) Tristan und Isolde (Middle (post-Schopenhauer)) Der Ring des Nibelungen (Middle-to-late (career-spanning)) Religion and Art (Late) Parsifal (Late (final completed work)) A History of Philosophy (Career-spanning) Aquinas (Mid-career) Contemporary Philosophy: Studies of Logical Positivism and Existentialism (Mid-career) Religion and Philosophy (Late) Philosophies and Cultures (Late) History of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career) The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (Mid-career (companion to the History)) Of Induction (Mid-career polemic) Novum Organon Renovatum (Late) On the Philosophy of Discovery (Late-career capstone) A Theory of Conditionals (Early) Inquiry (Mid-career) Context and Content (Mid-to-late) Ways a World Might Be (Late-middle) Our Knowledge of the Internal World (Late) Context (Late) Origines Sacrae (Early-career) A Rational Account of the Grounds of Protestant Religion (Early-career) The Unreasonableness of Separation (Mid-career) A Discourse in Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity (Late) The Bishop of Worcester's Answer to Mr Locke (Late) From a Logical Point of View (Mid-career) Set Theory and Its Logic (Mid-career) Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (Mid-to-late) The Roots of Reference (Late) Pursuit of Truth (Late) The Poverty of Historicism (Mid-career) Objective Knowledge (Late) Substance and Function (Early) The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy (Middle) The Myth of the State (Final) De Trinitatis Erroribus (Early) Dialogorum de Trinitate (Early) Edition of Ptolemy's Geography (Middle) Christianismi Restitutio (Late (final)) A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God (Early-career) A Discourse Concerning the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion (Early-career) The Scripture-Doctrine of the Trinity (Mid-career) A Just Vindication of the Church of England (Late (Civil-War exile)) A Defence of True Liberty from Antecedent and Extrinsecal Necessity (Late) Castigations of Mr Hobbes (Late) The Catching of Leviathan (Late) Micrographia (Early-career (career-defining)) An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations (Mid-career) Lectures de Potentia Restitutiva (Mid-career) The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke (Posthumous) American Power and the New Mandarins (Early (political work)) Reflections on Language (Mid-career (linguistic work)) Manufacturing Consent (Mid-late (political work)) The Minimalist Program (Late (linguistic work)) Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei (Career-defining) De Potestate Summi Pontificis in Rebus Temporalibus (Late) Letter to Foscarini (Late) De Aeterna Felicitate Sanctorum (Late (devotional)) Euthyphro (Early) Statesman (Late) Critias (Late) General Scholium (Late) Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (Posthumous) Alchemical and Theological Manuscripts (Career-spanning private work) De Institutione Musica (On Music) (Early) De Institutione Arithmetica (On Arithmetic) (Early) Theological Tractates (Opuscula Sacra) (Mid-to-late) On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem (Early) Intelligent Machinery (Mid) The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis (Late) The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms (Final) On the Prescription of Heretics (Pre-Montanist) On the Flesh of Christ (Mid-to-late (Montanist period)) Parts of Animals (Middle) Expression and Meaning (Mid-career) Minds, Brains, and Programs (Mid-career) Mind: A Brief Introduction (Late) Parts of Classes (Late-middle) Papers in Metaphysics and Epistemology (Late) Papers in Philosophical Logic (Late) A Completeness Theorem in Modal Logic (Earliest) Semantical Considerations on Modal Logic (Early) Philosophical Troubles (Late) The Consistency of the Axiom of Choice and the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis (Middle) What is Cantor's Continuum Problem? (Middle-to-late) Gödel's Ontological Argument (Late (private manuscript)) An Introduction to Wittgenstein's Tractatus (Mid-career) Collected Philosophical Papers (Late) The Religion of Man (Late) Gora (Middle) Chitra (Early-to-middle) The Adolescent (Late) A Writer's Diary (Late) Letter to Pythocles (Mature) Vatican Sayings (Mature) Dogmatics in Outline (Late-middle) Evangelical Theology (Late) The Barmen Declaration (Middle) The Therapy of Desire (Middle) Women and Human Development (Middle-to-late) Not for Profit (Late) Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic (Early) Some Dogmas of Religion (Middle) The Nature of Existence (Late) A Dying Colonialism (Middle (during Algerian war)) On the Virgin Conception and Original Sin (Late) Lectures on Jurisprudence (Middle) Essays on Philosophical Subjects (Posthumous) The Aims of the Philosophers (Middle) The Niche of Lights (Late) The First Cities (Early) Prophesy Deliverance! (Early) Black Prophetic Fire (Late) Popular Scientific Lectures (Middle) Knowledge and Error (Late) Guerrilla Metaphysics (Early) Object-Oriented Ontology (Late-middle) Another Country (Middle) No Name in the Street (Late) If Beale Street Could Talk (Late) Intuition and Reflection in Self-Consciousness (Middle) From the Acting to the Seeing (Middle-to-late) The Self-Identity of Absolute Contradiction (Late) The Origin of Russian Communism (Late) The Beginning and the End (Late) Self-Knowledge (Posthumous) Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics (Early-to-middle) Contributions to Philosophy (Of the Event) (Middle (Kehre)) Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology (Late) The Philosophical Foundations of Physics (Late) The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (Middle) The Serenity Prayer (Middle) Gaudete et Exsultate (Late-middle (papacy)) Let Us Dream (Late-middle) Sonnets (Career-spanning) Between Man and Man (Middle-to-late) Two Types of Faith (Late) The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (Early) Bāng-i-Darā (Early-to-middle) The Human Cycle (Middle) The Secret of the Veda (Early-to-middle) Redemptor Hominis (Early (papacy)) Memory and Identity (Final) Journal of Discourses (Career-spanning) The Church and the Second Sex (Early) Webster's First New Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language (Late-middle) Outercourse (Late) On Dialogue (Late (posthumous)) Contact (Late) Etz Chayim (Posthumous (transmission)) Sha'ar ha-Gilgulim (Posthumous (transmission)) Brahma-siddhi (Mature) Vidhi-viveka (Mature) Bhāvanā-viveka (Mature) Viṃśatikā (Mature (post-conversion to Mahāyāna)) Triṃśikā (Mature) Essence of Eloquence on the Interpretable and Definitive Meanings (Late-mature) In Praise of Dependent Origination (Early-mature) Kitāb al-Mashāʿir (Mature) Al-Shawāhid al-Rubūbiyya (Mid-to-late) Mafātīḥ al-Ghayb (Late) Act and Being (Early) Mind-Energy (Middle) What Is Art? (Late) The Moment (Final (year of death)) Factory Journal (Middle) Letter to a Priest (Final) You Are Not a Gadget (Early (public-philosophical career)) Who Owns the Future? (Middle (public-philosophical career)) Dawn of the New Everything (Middle-to-late) Deep Utopia (Late) Three Conversations (Final (year of death)) The Arcades Project (Career-spanning (unfinished)) Berlin Childhood Around 1900 (Middle (composed during exile)) The Sacred Pipe (Late) The Sixth Grandfather (Posthumous (testamentary materials)) Loaves and Fishes (Middle-to-late) Martin & Malcolm & America (Mid-to-late) Letters (Career-spanning) On the Soul (Mid-to-late (Montanist period)) Decision Points (Late (post-presidency)) Sermons (Career-spanning (Geneva preaching)) Fragments and Testimonia On Nature (fragments) Paradoxes (fragments) Republic (fragments) (Early) Logical Investigations (fragments) (Mature) On Providence (fragments) (Mature) On the Creation of the World On the Life of Moses Against Celsus On Abstinence from Animal Food The Histories Stromateis (Miscellanies) Against Heresies Hexaemeron (Late) Life of Moses (Late) Homilies on the Gospel of Matthew De Officiis Ministrorum (Late) Vulgate (Latin Bible translation) (Mature) Hymn to Zeus Fragments (Reconstructed) On the Natural Faculties The Consolation of Philosophy Sayings and Legal Rulings Arthashastra Thirukkural Ramayana

Gender is constructed; what counts as male or female reflects practice.

18 schools

On this view, while biological features exist, what they socially mean — what counts as a man or a woman, what roles attach, how the categories are policed and revised — is the work of social practice. The categories are real but constructed; revising them is legitimate when the construction was bad and worth defending when it was good.

Why these schools land hereThese schools — Naturalism, Empiricism, Pragmatism, Phenomenology, KTI, Process Philosophy, Constructivism, Pragmatic Realism, Dialectical Materialism, Confucianism (in its cultivation mode), Hylomorphism (in its natural-law mode), Epicureanism, Logical Positivism, Relationalism, Structuralism — read institutional categories as emergent from practice. They differ widely on which practices to endorse; Naturalism and Logical Positivism are typically biological-realist about sex while constructionist about gender, while postmodern constructivists run the construction further.
Works: Tao Te Ching Letter to Menoeceus The Myth of Sisyphus Discipline and Punish (Late) The Rebel (Late) Why I Am Not a Christian (Mid-late) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Mid (the breakthrough book)) The Stranger (Early (the breakthrough novel)) Nausea (Early (Sartre's first novel, before Being and Nothingness)) Madness and Civilization (Early (Foucault's breakthrough work, his doctoral dissertation)) The Birth of the Clinic (Early-mid (between Madness and Civilization and The Order of Things)) The Archaeology of Knowledge (Mid (methodological transition between archaeological and genealogical phases)) Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Mid) Realms of the Human Unconscious (Mid) On Learned Ignorance (Mature (the founding work of Cusa's philosophical career, composed at age 39)) The Vision of God (Mature (one of Cusa's most condensed and beautiful late works)) On Conjectures (Mature (the systematic epistemological development of the docta-ignorantia framework)) Opus Tripartitum (Late (Eckhart's most ambitious Latin project, undertaken in the years before the 1326 trial)) Reden der Unterweisung (Early (Eckhart's first major vernacular work, written before the trials of his last decade)) Vom Edlen Menschen (Mature (probably from the Strasbourg years before the trial)) Ocean of Reasoning (Mature (Tsongkhapa's major philosophical-Madhyamaka work)) The Memorandum (Early) Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (Late) Perpetual Peace (Late) The Metaphysics of Morals (Late) On Vision and Colors (Early) On the Will in Nature (Middle) The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics (Late) Reflections on the Guillotine (Late) The First Man (Final (unfinished)) The Roads to Freedom (Middle) The Words (Late) She Came to Stay (Early) Pyrrhus and Cineas (Early) On the Sacred Disease Memorabilia Antidosis

Sex and gender are constituted by relations of recognition.

11 schools

On relational views, identity is not a property a person has alone; it is constituted by the web of recognition the person sits in. What makes someone a man or a woman in any thick sense is the relations of kinship, community, ritual, and recognition that embed the person — not a feature of the person considered apart.

Why these schools land hereAnimism, African Traditional Religion, Ubuntu, Afrofuturism, Deep Ecology, and Shintoism read personhood relationally and so read sex/gender categories the same way. Many traditions in this cluster have historically recognised gendered categories beyond the binary (often within specific ritual or social roles) without conceding that categories are arbitrary; the categories are real because the relations are real.
Works: Fragments The Dhammapada Critique of Pure Reason Thus Spoke Zarathustra Being and Time (Early) Philosophical Investigations (Late) Process and Reality (Late) Mūlamadhyamakakārikā Abhidharmakośa Visuddhimagga The Heart Sutra I Ching Critique of Practical Reason (Late) Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals Critique of Judgment (Late) What Is Metaphysics? (Early) Phenomenology of Perception Totality and Infinity (Early) On Certainty (Latest) Physics and Philosophy The Structure of Scientific Revolutions On the Genealogy of Morality (Late) On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (Early) Beyond Good and Evil (Late) The Order of Time (Late) Daodejing (Early) The Analysis of Mind (Mid) The Analysis of Matter (Mid) The Analysis of Sensations (Mid) God-Christ-Church: A Practical Guide to Process Theology (Late) Process Theology: An Introductory Exposition (Mid) The Divine Relativity (Mid) The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Mid) Animism: Respecting the Living World (Late) The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement (Mid) The Structure of the World (Late) Black Quantum Futurism: Theory and Practice (Late) More Brilliant than the Sun: Adventures in Sonic Fiction (Mid) Space Is the Place (Mid) Quantum Healing (Mid) The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Late (Husserl's last work, written in Freiburg under Nazi proscription)) Life's Philosophy: Reason and Feeling in a Deeper World (Late (Næss's closing popular statement, written at 86)) Quantum: The Search for Links (Late) When Species Meet (Late) New System (Mature) Correspondence with Arnauld (Mature) The Book of Changes (Yi Jing) (Early) Wholeness and the Implicate Order (Late) Zen and the Birds of Appetite (Late) Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quantum computer (Early) Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature (Mid-career) Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? (Mid-career, post-EPR) Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge (Late) Essays 1958–1962 on Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge (Final) Plato's Dialectical Ethics (Early) Philosophical Hermeneutics (Late-middle) The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy (Late) Reason in the Age of Science (Late) Speech and Phenomena (Early) Margins of Philosophy (Middle (one of three 1972 volumes)) Limited Inc (Middle-late) Specters of Marx (Late) Philosophy of New Music (Middle) Aesthetic Theory (Final) Essays, Moral and Political (Middle) The History of England (Late) Shibun Yōryō (Early) Naobi no Mitama (Middle) Kojiki-den (Late (career-spanning))

“Male” and “female” are family-resemblance terms — no single essence.

15 schools

On this view, the everyday categories of male and female pick out overlapping clusters of features — anatomy, physiology, social role, self-understanding, behaviour — that do not reduce to a single essence. The categories are useful but lossy; the demand for a single definition is misplaced.

Why these schools land hereProcess, postmodern, and constructivist schools — Buddhism, Existentialism, Postmodernism, Process Philosophy, Phenomenalism, Constructivism, Yogācāra, Taoism, Sikhism, Absurdism, Presentism, Occasionalism, Relativism, Wellness, Psychedelic — reject the demand for univocal social categories. The skeptical relational schools (Nihilism, Pyrrhonism) reach a similar conclusion from suspended judgement. The shared move is to deny that 'what really makes someone X' is the right question to be answering.
Works: Zhuangzi — Inner Chapters An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Late) Letter on Humanism (Late) Outlines of Pyrrhonism A Treatise of Human Nature (Early) Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Late) The Order of Things Of Grammatology The Birth of Tragedy (Early) The Question Concerning Technology (Late) The Gay Science (Middle (between Daybreak and Zarathustra)) The History of Sexuality (Late (his last major project)) Zhuangzi Essays in Zen Buddhism (Mid (Suzuki's major early period of Western dissemination)) Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (Early (Suzuki's first major book; preceding the Essays in Zen Buddhism by twenty years)) Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist (Late) Zen and Japanese Culture (Late) Mystics and Zen Masters (Late) The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Late (Bergson's last major book, written after a long convalescence))

The distinction is conventional within a deeper non-dual reality.

13 schools

On non-dual views, the distinctness of male and female — like every binary distinction between apparent selves — is a perspectival distinction within a deeper unity. Particular sex and gender designations operate at the conventional level where most of life is lived; at the ultimate level the distinction is one more pattern in the play of forms.

Why these schools land hereAdvaita Vedānta, Sufi waḥdat al-wujūd, Idealism, Solipsism, Neo-Platonism, Rationalism, and Transcendentalism share obs_number=Singular. They do not typically endorse specific political conclusions about how to organise sex and gender categories — those conclusions live within the conventional frame where ordinary moral reasoning applies.
Works: The Upanishads Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Early) Cartesian Meditations (Late) The Enneads The World as Will and Representation Brahma Sutra Bhāṣya The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch The German Sermons (Late) Mathnawi (Late) System of Transcendental Idealism (Early) Deliverance from Error (Late) The Concept of Anxiety (Mid (the productive year of 1844 — Concept of Anxiety, Philosophical Fragments, etc.)) Walden (Mid (Thoreau's major prose statement)) Science of Logic (Mid (the central work of the mature Hegelian system)) Émile (Late) The Logical Structure of the World (Early (Carnap's breakthrough work)) Gravity and Grace (Posthumous (Weil died in 1943 at age 34)) Waiting for God (Posthumous) The Seven Storey Mountain (Early (Merton's breakthrough book; the spiritual autobiography of his conversion)) Seeds of Contemplation (1949) / New Seeds of Contemplation (Mid-late (Merton's mature contemplative theology)) An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Late-mid (looking back over the formative years)) Notes from Underground (Mid (the transition into the great late period)) The Fall (Late (Camus's last completed novel; the Nobel followed in 1957)) Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (Mature (the most comprehensive single-text statement of the system)) Scivias (Early (the first of her three major visionary works)) Philosophical Fragments (Mid (the same productive 1844 as Concept of Anxiety)) Practice in Christianity (Late (the last major pseudonymous work; preceding the attack on the Danish state church)) Repetition (Early-mid (the same explosive 1843 as Either/Or and Fear and Trembling)) Existence and Existents (Early (the first major book, before Time and the Other)) Liber Vitae Meritorum (Mid (the middle volume of the visionary trilogy)) The Imaginary (Early (preceding Being and Nothingness)) Confessions of a Mask (Early (the breakthrough novel that established Mishima's literary reputation)) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (Early (the first of Douglass's three autobiographies)) The Freedom of a Christian (Early (1520 is Luther's most productive year of foundational treatises)) Four Quartets (Late (Eliot's mature Anglo-Catholic period)) Vita Nuova (Early (Dante's first major work)) Why Not the Best? (Mid (pre-presidential)) The Sorrows of Young Werther (Early (the 25-year-old Goethe's breakthrough work)) Six Crises (Mid (pre-presidential, post-1960 defeat)) Vom Abgeschiedenheit (On Detachment) / Counsels on Discernment (Early) The Hidden Words (Early) Aké: The Years of Childhood (Mid) The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Mid) Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Late (the major autobiographical work)) Runaway Horses (Late) An American Life (Late) My Life (Late) Promises to Keep (Mid) Trump: The Art of the Deal (Early) No Man Is an Island (Mid) Conjectures of a Guilty Bystander (Late) Letters to Olga (Mid (composed during Havel's 1979-83 imprisonment)) The Cancer Journals (Mid) Long Commentary on De Anima (Late) Foundations of the Science of Knowledge (Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre) (Early) On Nature (Peri Physeos) (Early) Seven Valleys and Four Valleys (Early (composed before the 1863 proclamation)) Short Treatise on God (Early (Spinoza's first systematic presentation of his metaphysics, predating the Ethics)) Reveries of the Solitary Walker (Last (composed in Rousseau's final two years, after he had retreated from public life)) Essays: First Series (Mature) Soliloquies (Early) The Inward Journey (Late-mature) Slavery and Freedom (Late-mature) The Meaning of the Creative Act (Early-mature) The Threefold Cord: Mind, Body, and World (Late) My Early Life (Mid) Coal (Mid) Zami: A New Spelling of My Name (Late) Song of Solomon (Mid) This Is My Story (Mid) Autobiography (Late) Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion (Early) Dīvān-i Shams-i Tabrīzī (Mature) A Confession (Mid) What I Believe (Mid) The Death of Ivan Ilyich (Late) Resurrection (Late) Freedom in Exile (Mid) My Land and My People (Early) The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (Early) Ash-Wednesday (Mid) Just As I Am (Late) How to Be Born Again (Mid) The Journey: How to Live by Faith in an Uncertain World (Late) On Cheerfulness (Mature) Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (Late) The Synthesis of Yoga (Mature) Asrar-i Khudi (Secrets of the Self) (Mid) Sun and Steel (Late) The Decay of the Angel (Late) Jaap Sahib (Mature) Akal Ustat (Mature) Vom Abgeschiedenheit (On Detachment) (Mature) Dreams from My Father (Early) Conversations with Myself (Late) The Conquest of Happiness (Mid) Ecce Homo (Late) Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Late) Life's Philosophy: Reason and Feeling in a Deeper World (Late) From East to West (Late) Tablet of Ahmad (Mature) Where's the Rest of Me? (Early) In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal (Late) Looking Forward (Mid) Promise Me, Dad (Late) Trump: The Art of the Comeback (Mid) De Apice Theoriae (Late) The Voice of the Silence (Late) Wandering (Panghuang) (Mid) Wild Grass (Yecao) (Mid) With Head and Heart (Late) The Sign of Jonas (Mid) The Asian Journal (Late (final)) To the Castle and Back (Late) Quaestiones in Tertium De Anima (Early-to-middle) De Anima Intellectiva (Middle (post-Aquinas-attack)) De Aeternitate Mundi (Middle) Quaestiones super Librum de Causis (Late) West-östlicher Divan (Late) Conversations with Eckermann (Late) Bhagavad Gītā Bhāṣya (Career-defining) Upadeśasāhasrī (Mature) Journal (Career-spanning)

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