Works

#721

The Methods of Ethics (Late)

Henry Sidgwick · 1874 (1st edn); 1907 (7th, definitive)

Analytic moral philosophy · British classical utilitarianism

Sidgwick's 1874 foundational text — the three methods of ethics (egoism, intuitionism, utilitarianism)

25% analytic-metaphysics 15% rationalism 10% empiricism 10% realism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% liberal-theology 5% naturalism 5% platonism-classical 5% pragmatism 10% critical-realism +7

#722

Principia Ethica (Early)

G.E. Moore · 1903

Analytic moral philosophy · British analytic philosophy (Cambridge)

Moore's 1903 foundational analytic ethics — the naturalistic fallacy and the open question

30% analytic-metaphysics 15% rationalism 10% platonism-classical 15% realism 5% empiricism 10% critical-realism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% idealism 5% naturalism +6

#723

Language, Truth, and Logic (Early)

A.J. Ayer · 1936

Analytic philosophy / logical positivism · Vienna Circle / British logical positivism

Ayer's 1936 foundational manifesto of British logical positivism — the verification principle and the elimination of metaphysics

35% logical-positivism 15% analytic-metaphysics 20% empiricism 10% naturalism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% pyrrhonism 5% realism 5% rationalism +5

#724

The Concept of Mind (Mid)

Gilbert Ryle · 1949

Analytic philosophy of mind · British ordinary-language philosophy (Oxford)

Ryle's 1949 foundational text — the "ghost in the machine" critique of Cartesian dualism

25% analytic-metaphysics 25% behaviorism 10% naturalism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% empiricism 5% realism 5% pragmatism 5% phenomenology 5% logical-positivism +6

#725

How to Do Things with Words (Late)

J.L. Austin · 1955 (William James Lectures at Harvard); 1962 (book, posthumous)

Analytic philosophy of language · British ordinary-language philosophy (Oxford)

Austin's 1962 foundational text of speech-act theory — performatives and the three forces (locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary)

30% analytic-metaphysics 15% pragmatic-realism 15% pragmatism 10% realism 5% phenomenology 10% empiricism 5% naturalism 5% constructivism 5% rationalism +6

#726

The Blue and Brown Books (Mid)

Ludwig Wittgenstein · 1933-35 (dictations); 1958 (published posthumously)

Philosophical dictations · British analytic philosophy / ordinary-language philosophy

Wittgenstein's 1933-35 transitional dictations bridging Tractatus (1921) and Philosophical Investigations (1953)

25% analytic-metaphysics 15% pragmatic-realism 10% pragmatism 10% phenomenology 5% realism 10% pyrrhonism 5% naturalism 10% constructivism 5% empiricism 5% logical-positivism +7

#727

An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Late)

Jeremy Bentham · 1780 (privately printed); 1789 (published)

Philosophical treatise on morals and legislation · British utilitarianism / philosophical radicalism

Bentham's 1789 founding treatise of classical utilitarianism — "the greatest happiness of the greatest number"

40% utilitarianism 15% empiricism 10% naturalism 10% liberalism 15% consequentialism 5% pragmatism 5% analytic-metaphysics +4

#728

The Division of Labor in Society (Early)

Émile Durkheim · 1893

Sociological treatise · French sociology / structural-functionalism

Durkheim's 1893 founding treatise of classical sociology — mechanical to organic solidarity

25% logical-positivism 15% naturalism 15% rationalism 10% historicism 5% pragmatism 10% critical-theory 15% structuralism 5% liberalism +5

#729

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Mid)

Max Weber · 1904-05 (essays); 1920 (revised)

Sociological essay · German sociology / Verstehende Soziologie

Weber's 1905 classic linking the Calvinist ethic to the spirit of modern capitalism

10% logical-positivism 20% historicism 15% hermeneutics 10% phenomenology 15% critical-theory 5% pragmatism 10% liberalism 15% protestant-reformation +5

#730

Economy and Society (Late)

Max Weber · 1909-20 (drafts); 1922 (posthumous)

Systematic sociological treatise · German sociology / Verstehende Soziologie

Weber's monumental 1922 posthumous systematic sociology of types of social action and authority

10% logical-positivism 20% historicism 15% hermeneutics 15% rationalism 10% critical-theory 10% liberalism 10% structuralism 5% pragmatism 5% phenomenology +6

#731

The Philosophy of Money (Mid)

Georg Simmel · 1900 (2nd ed. 1907)

Philosophical-sociological treatise · German sociology / Lebensphilosophie

Simmel's 1900 phenomenology of money as the form and symbol of modern social life

20% phenomenology 15% lebensphilosophie 10% historicism 10% hermeneutics 15% critical-theory 10% rationalism 5% pragmatism 5% liberalism 10% idealism +6

#732

Development as Freedom (Late)

Amartya Sen · 1999

Treatise in development economics and political philosophy · Capability approach / welfare economics

Sen's 1999 reformulation of development as the expansion of substantive freedoms

25% liberalism 5% utilitarianism 15% pragmatism 10% critical-theory 15% aristotelianism 10% humanism 10% rationalism 10% analytic-metaphysics +5

#733

The Star of Redemption (Mid)

Franz Rosenzweig · 1918-19 (composed in trenches); 1921 (published)

Systematic theological-philosophical treatise · German-Jewish philosophy / dialogical philosophy

Rosenzweig's 1921 systematic Jewish theology of creation, revelation, redemption — the new thinking

30% rabbinic-judaism 10% phenomenology 10% idealism 15% existentialism 10% hermeneutics 5% kabbalah-lurianic 10% christianity 5% rationalism 5% romanticism +6

#734

Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism (Late)

Hermann Cohen · 1918 (completed); 1919 (posthumous); 1929 (2nd ed.)

Systematic philosophical theology · Marburg neo-Kantianism / German-Jewish philosophy

Cohen's 1919 posthumous Marburg-neo-Kantian reconstruction of Judaism as the religion of reason

25% rabbinic-judaism 20% idealism 20% rationalism 5% kabbalah-lurianic 10% hermeneutics 10% liberalism 5% humanism 5% phenomenology +5

#735

On Sense and Reference (Mid)

Gottlob Frege · 1892

Philosophical essay · German analytic philosophy / logicism

Frege's 1892 classic essay distinguishing Sinn (sense) from Bedeutung (reference)

35% analytic-metaphysics 15% rationalism 15% realism 10% platonism-classical 10% logical-positivism 5% idealism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% empiricism +5

#736

Intentionality (Mid)

John Searle · 1983

Philosophical treatise on mind · American analytic philosophy

Searle's 1983 essay on intentionality as the mark of the mental and its biological basis

30% analytic-metaphysics 15% phenomenology 15% naturalism 15% realism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% cognitivism 5% pragmatism 5% rationalism +5

#737

The Language of Thought (Mid)

Jerry Fodor · 1975

Philosophical-cognitive-science treatise · American analytic philosophy / cognitive science

Fodor's 1975 founding treatise of the language-of-thought (LOT) hypothesis — Mentalese

25% analytic-metaphysics 25% cognitivism 15% rationalism 10% realism 10% naturalism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% empiricism 5% platonism-classical +5

#738

The Sources of Normativity (Mid)

Christine Korsgaard · 1996 (Tanner Lectures 1992)

Philosophical lectures with commentary · American analytic philosophy / Kantian constructivism

Korsgaard's 1996 Tanner Lectures on the constitutivist foundations of moral normativity

35% kantian-transcendental-idealism 20% constructivism 15% analytic-metaphysics 15% rationalism 5% humanism 5% aristotelianism 5% pragmatic-realism +4

#739

Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (Late)

J. L. Mackie · 1977

Philosophical treatise on metaethics · Australian/British analytic philosophy / moral skepticism

Mackie's 1977 founding work of moral error theory — "there are no objective values"

30% analytic-metaphysics 20% naturalism 15% empiricism 10% pyrrhonism 10% constructivism 5% utilitarianism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% humanism +5

#740

The Struggle for Recognition (Mid)

Axel Honneth · 1992 (German); 1995 (English)

Social-philosophical treatise · Frankfurt School critical theory / Hegelian social philosophy

Honneth's 1992 Hegelian reconstruction of critical theory through the struggle for recognition

30% critical-theory 20% idealism 10% phenomenology 15% pragmatism 5% hermeneutics 5% historicism 10% humanism 5% liberalism +5

#741

Astronomia Nova (Mid)

Johannes Kepler · 1609

Scientific treatise · Early modern natural philosophy / mathematical astronomy

Kepler's 1609 founding treatise of modern astronomy — elliptical orbits and the first two laws

20% rationalism 20% empiricism 15% naturalism 15% platonism-classical 5% aristotelianism 10% christianity 10% realism 5% pragmatic-realism +5

#742

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Late)

Nicolaus Copernicus · 1543 (published; composed 1510-30s)

Astronomical treatise · Renaissance natural philosophy / mathematical astronomy

Copernicus's 1543 founding work of heliocentric astronomy — the "Copernican Revolution"

15% rationalism 10% empiricism 20% platonism-classical 10% aristotelianism 15% christianity 15% humanism 10% realism 5% naturalism +5

#743

A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Late)

James Clerk Maxwell · 1873 (2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1891)

Scientific treatise · Victorian mathematical physics / classical field theory

Maxwell's 1873 founding treatise unifying electricity, magnetism, and light — the four Maxwell equations

20% rationalism 20% empiricism 20% naturalism 15% realism 5% pragmatic-realism 10% platonism-classical 5% christianity 5% analytic-metaphysics +5

#744

What Is Life? (Late)

Erwin Schrödinger · 1943 (lectures); 1944 (book)

Scientific lectures · Twentieth-century physics / philosophy of biology

Schrödinger's 1944 Dublin lectures founding the conceptual framework of molecular biology

25% naturalism 15% rationalism 10% empiricism 5% phenomenology 5% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 10% idealism 10% advaita-vedanta 10% humanism +6

#745

Computing Machinery and Intelligence (Late)

Alan Turing · 1950 (Mind)

Philosophical-mathematical essay · British analytic philosophy / theoretical computer science

Turing's 1950 founding essay of artificial intelligence — the Turing test

25% analytic-metaphysics 20% cognitivism 15% rationalism 15% naturalism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% empiricism 5% pragmatism 5% humanism +5

#746

A Mathematical Theory of Communication (Mid)

Claude Shannon · 1948 (Bell System Technical Journal)

Mathematical-engineering paper · Mid-twentieth-century information theory / electrical engineering

Shannon's 1948 founding paper of information theory — entropy, channel capacity, the bit

25% rationalism 20% naturalism 10% empiricism 15% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% cognitivism 5% analytic-metaphysics 5% platonism-classical 5% pragmatism +6

#747

Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Late)

Norbert Wiener · 1948 (2nd ed. 1961)

Scientific-philosophical treatise · Mid-twentieth-century cybernetics / systems theory

Wiener's 1948 founding work of cybernetics — feedback, control, communication in animal and machine

25% naturalism 20% rationalism 15% cognitivism 10% pragmatic-realism 15% systems-theory 5% empiricism 5% realism 5% humanism +5

#748

The Growth of Biological Thought (Late)

Ernst Mayr · 1982

History of science / philosophical biology · Twentieth-century evolutionary biology / history of biology

Mayr's 1982 monumental history of biological thought — diversity, evolution, inheritance

30% naturalism 25% historicism 15% empiricism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% analytic-metaphysics 5% rationalism +4

#749

Wonderful Life (Late)

Stephen Jay Gould · 1989

Popular-scientific essay / philosophy of biology · Late-twentieth-century evolutionary biology / philosophy of biology

Gould's 1989 study of the Burgess Shale — replay the tape of life and you get a different result

30% naturalism 25% historicism 15% empiricism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% critical-theory 5% realism 5% analytic-metaphysics 5% humanism +5

#750

The Double Helix (Mid)

James D. Watson · 1968

Scientific memoir · Mid-twentieth-century molecular biology

Watson's 1968 personal account of the 1953 discovery of the DNA double helix at Cambridge

30% naturalism 20% empiricism 15% rationalism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% cognitivism 5% historicism 5% humanism +5

#751

Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Late)

Edward O. Wilson · 1975

Scientific treatise · Late-twentieth-century evolutionary biology / sociobiology

E. O. Wilson's 1975 founding treatise of sociobiology — the biology of social behavior

35% naturalism 15% empiricism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% utilitarianism 10% realism 10% rationalism 5% cognitivism 5% analytic-metaphysics 5% humanism +6

#752

The Character of Physical Law (Mid)

Richard Feynman · 1964 (lectures); 1965 (book)

Public lectures on physics · Twentieth-century physics / philosophy of science

Feynman's 1965 Messenger Lectures on the structure and character of physical laws

25% naturalism 20% rationalism 20% empiricism 15% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% platonism-classical 5% analytic-metaphysics +4

#753

Experiments on Plant Hybridization (Late)

Gregor Mendel · 1866 (published in proceedings of Brünn Natural History Society)

Scientific paper · Mid-nineteenth-century biology / mathematical-experimental natural history

Mendel's 1866 founding paper of genetics — laws of inheritance from pea-plant experiments

30% naturalism 25% empiricism 15% rationalism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% christianity 10% realism +3

#754

Traité élémentaire de chimie (Late)

Antoine Lavoisier · 1789

Chemical treatise · Enlightenment natural philosophy / chemistry

Lavoisier's 1789 founding treatise of modern chemistry — the chemical revolution

25% naturalism 25% empiricism 20% rationalism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% liberalism 5% humanism +4

#755

The Order of Time (Late)

Carlo Rovelli · 2017 (Italian); 2018 (English)

Popular-philosophical physics essay · Twenty-first-century theoretical physics / philosophy of time

Rovelli's 2017 popular essay on the dissolution of time in fundamental physics

30% naturalism 15% rationalism 10% empiricism 10% phenomenology 10% pragmatic-realism 10% realism 5% pyrrhonism 5% buddhism 5% humanism +6

#756

Descartes' Error (Late)

António Damásio · 1994

Popular-scientific philosophical-neurological treatise · Late-twentieth-century neuroscience / philosophy of mind

Damasio's 1994 founding work of affective neuroscience — the somatic marker hypothesis

25% naturalism 20% empiricism 10% phenomenology 10% pragmatic-realism 10% cognitivism 10% pragmatism 5% realism 5% humanism 5% analytic-metaphysics +6

#757

Daodejing (Early)

Laozi (trad. attrib.) · 4th c. BCE (composite text; trad. attrib. Laozi 6th c.)

Philosophical-poetic gnomic anthology · Classical Chinese Daoism

The 4th-c. BCE founding scripture of Daoism — Way and Power, wuwei, and the dao that cannot be named

60% taoism 5% confucianism 5% buddhism 10% pyrrhonism 10% naturalism 10% mysticism +3

#758

The Art of War (Early)

Sun Tzu (Sunzi) · 5th c. BCE (Warring States era)

Strategic treatise · Classical Chinese military and political thought

Sun Tzu's 5th-c. BCE classic of strategy — "supreme excellence is to subdue the enemy without fighting"

20% taoism 15% confucianism 20% legalism 20% pragmatic-realism 10% naturalism 10% realism 5% humanism +4

#759

Mozi (Early)

Mozi (and Mohist school) · 5th-4th c. BCE (Warring States era)

Philosophical anthology · Classical Chinese Mohism

Mozi's 5th-c. BCE Mohist classic — impartial concern (jian'ai) and the will of Heaven

50% mohism 15% consequentialism 5% confucianism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% naturalism 10% utilitarianism 5% humanism +4

#760

War and Peace (Mid)

Leo Tolstoy · 1865-69

Epic novel with philosophical-historical essays · Nineteenth-century Russian realist novel

Tolstoy's 1869 epic of Russian aristocratic life during the Napoleonic Wars — and the philosophy of history

30% realism 20% historicism 15% humanism 15% christianity 5% naturalism 5% romanticism 5% phenomenology 5% critical-theory +5

#761

Anna Karenina (Mid)

Leo Tolstoy · 1873-77 (serialized); 1878 (book)

Realist novel · Nineteenth-century Russian realist novel

Tolstoy's 1878 novel — "All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way"

35% realism 20% christianity 15% humanism 10% phenomenology 5% romanticism 5% naturalism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% critical-theory +5

#762

Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (Mid)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · 1795-96

Bildungsroman / novel of formation · German classical / Weimar classicism

Goethe's 1795-96 founding Bildungsroman — the formation of the modern self through experience

20% romanticism 15% idealism 20% humanism 15% realism 10% historicism 5% naturalism 5% phenomenology 10% liberalism +5

#763

On the Aesthetic Education of Man (Mid)

Friedrich Schiller · 1795 (in Die Horen)

Philosophical letters · German classical / Weimar classicism / Kantian aesthetics

Schiller's 1795 letters on aesthetic education as the path from sensuous to political freedom

25% idealism 20% kantian-transcendental-idealism 15% romanticism 15% humanism 10% liberalism 5% critical-theory 5% platonism-classical 5% rationalism +5

#764

Duino Elegies (Late)

Rainer Maria Rilke · 1912-22 (composed at Duino and Muzot); 1923 (published)

Modernist poetic cycle · German modernist poetry

Rilke's 1922 cycle of ten elegies on the angel, the human, and the world

25% modernism 15% phenomenology 15% mysticism 10% romanticism 15% existentialism 5% christianity 10% humanism 5% aestheticism +5

#765

The Castle (Late)

Franz Kafka · 1922 (composed); 1926 (posthumous)

Modernist novel (unfinished) · German-language modernist literature

Kafka's 1926 posthumous novel of the land surveyor K. and the inaccessible Castle bureaucracy

30% modernism 20% existentialism 10% phenomenology 15% critical-theory 10% rabbinic-judaism 5% pyrrhonism 5% realism 5% mysticism +5

#766

The Essays (Late)

Michel de Montaigne · 1580 (Books I-II); 1588 (Book III); 1595 (posthumous augmented)

Essays / personal philosophical reflections · Renaissance humanism / late-sixteenth-century French moralism

Montaigne's 1580-92 founding essays of the modern essay form — "Que sais-je?"

30% humanism 25% pyrrhonism 10% stoicism 5% epicureanism 15% christianity 5% pragmatic-realism 5% aristotelianism 5% phenomenology +5

#767

Oedipus Rex (Early)

Sophocles · c. 429 BCE (first performed at the Dionysia)

Athenian tragedy · Classical Greek tragedy / Athenian drama

Sophocles's c. 429 BCE Athenian tragedy of Oedipus — fate, knowledge, and self-discovery

30% classical-greek 15% aristotelianism 10% platonism-classical 15% humanism 5% mysticism 10% existentialism 10% tragedy 5% phenomenology +5

#768

The Oresteia (Early)

Aeschylus · 458 BCE (first performed at the Dionysia)

Athenian tragic trilogy · Classical Greek tragedy / Athenian drama

Aeschylus's 458 BCE trilogy — the transformation of bloody vengeance into civic justice

30% classical-greek 5% aristotelianism 5% platonism-classical 10% humanism 10% mysticism 15% tragedy 15% liberalism 5% idealism 5% critical-theory +6

#769

The Bacchae (Late)

Euripides · c. 405 BCE (posthumous; performed 405)

Athenian tragedy · Classical Greek tragedy / Athenian drama

Euripides's c. 405 BCE posthumous tragedy — Dionysus, Pentheus, and the limits of rationalist order

25% classical-greek 5% aristotelianism 5% platonism-classical 20% mysticism 10% humanism 15% tragedy 5% romanticism 5% pyrrhonism 10% critical-theory +6

#770

A Doll's House (Mid)

Henrik Ibsen · 1879 (first performed Copenhagen)

Modern social drama · Late-nineteenth-century Scandinavian theatre / modern realism

Ibsen's 1879 founding work of modern social drama — Nora slams the door

30% realism 20% liberalism 20% feminism 10% humanism 5% critical-theory 5% pragmatic-realism 5% existentialism 5% naturalism +5

#771

The Cherry Orchard (Late)

Anton Chekhov · 1903 (composed); 1904 (premiered at the Moscow Art Theatre)

Modern theatrical comedy / tragicomedy · Russian realist-modernist drama

Chekhov's 1904 final play — the passing of the Russian gentry and the felling of the cherry orchard

30% realism 15% modernism 15% humanism 10% critical-theory 10% pragmatic-realism 10% historicism 5% phenomenology 5% tragedy +5

#772

The Picture of Dorian Gray (Late)

Oscar Wilde · 1890 (Lippincott's); 1891 (revised book)

Fin-de-siècle aesthetic novel · Late-Victorian aestheticism / decadence

Wilde's 1890-91 fin-de-siècle aesthetic novel of decadence, beauty, and the corrupted soul

30% aestheticism 15% romanticism 10% humanism 10% modernism 5% pyrrhonism 10% platonism-classical 10% christianity 5% critical-theory 5% existentialism +6

#773

Kokoro (Late)

Natsume Sōseki · 1914 (serialized Asahi Shimbun)

Modern Japanese novel · Late-Meiji / early-Taishō Japanese literature

Sōseki's 1914 modern Japanese novel of friendship, guilt, and the Meiji-Taishō transition

25% realism 20% modernism 10% phenomenology 10% buddhism 10% confucianism 10% existentialism 10% humanism 5% historicism +5

#774

Things Fall Apart (Mid)

Chinua Achebe · 1958

Modern African novel · Twentieth-century anglophone African literature

Achebe's 1958 founding work of modern African literature — Okonkwo and Igbo society on the eve of British colonization

25% realism 10% modernism 15% humanism 15% critical-theory 15% historicism 5% phenomenology 5% pragmatic-realism 10% tragedy +5

#775

Disgrace (Late)

J. M. Coetzee · 1999

Modern South African novel · Late-twentieth-century anglophone South African literature

Coetzee's 1999 post-apartheid novel of guilt, violence, and grace — Booker Prize 1999

25% realism 10% modernism 10% phenomenology 15% critical-theory 10% humanism 10% christianity 5% historicism 5% existentialism 10% tragedy +6

#776

The Old Man and the Sea (Late)

Ernest Hemingway · 1952

Modern American novella · Mid-twentieth-century American modernism

Hemingway's 1952 short novel of the old fisherman Santiago — Pulitzer 1953, Nobel 1954

20% realism 25% modernism 15% stoicism 10% phenomenology 10% humanism 10% christianity 5% naturalism 5% existentialism +5

#777

History of the Peloponnesian War (Early)

Thucydides · c. 431-411 BCE (unfinished at Thucydides's death)

Historical narrative · Classical Greek historiography

Thucydides's c. 411 BCE founding work of critical historiography and political realism — a "possession for all time"

25% classical-greek 20% historicism 25% realism 10% pragmatic-realism 5% humanism 5% pyrrhonism 5% tragedy 5% naturalism +5

#778

The Histories (Early)

Herodotus · c. 440s-420s BCE

Historical narrative · Classical Greek historiography

Herodotus's 5th-c. BCE Histories — "Father of History" — Greek-Persian Wars and the wider known world

30% classical-greek 20% historicism 15% humanism 5% naturalism 10% realism 5% pragmatic-realism 5% mysticism 5% tragedy 5% pyrrhonism +6

#779

The Annals (Late)

Tacitus (Publius Cornelius Tacitus) · c. 116-120 CE (later years of Trajan, reign of Hadrian)

Imperial Roman historical narrative · Classical Roman historiography / Silver-Latin prose

Tacitus's c. 116-120 CE history of imperial Rome — Tiberius to Nero, the corruption of power

30% classical-roman 20% historicism 15% stoicism 10% realism 10% pragmatic-realism 10% tragedy 5% humanism +4

#780

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Late)

Edward Gibbon · 1776 (vol. I); 1781 (vols. II-III); 1788-89 (vols. IV-VI)

Enlightenment historical narrative · British Enlightenment historiography

Gibbon's 1776-89 monumental Enlightenment narrative of Roman decline — from the Antonines to the fall of Constantinople

25% historicism 20% rationalism 15% humanism 10% pyrrhonism 10% naturalism 5% realism 10% liberalism 5% critical-theory +5