The Westminster Ontology
The Westminster Standards are a single, carefully argued system of doctrine. This page lays that system out as a map: the eight great topics the divines treated, and — under each one — the precise questions they had to settle and the answer the Confession gives.
How to read this page
Each of the eight sections below is a locus — a major area of Christian doctrine, from Scripture through to the Last Things. A short overview introduces each one. Beneath it are the specific questions the Assembly answered.
For every question you'll see the position the Confession actually takes, marked WCF and explained in a sentence, followed by the rival positions it weighed and rejected — Roman Catholic, Arminian, Socinian, Independent, Erastian, antinomian. Follow a rejected position or a locus heading to read more.
Scripture
The Westminster Standards begin not with God but with Scripture (WCF I), and the order is deliberate. The Confession's opening chapter is the most fully developed Reformed treatment of Scripture in any confessional document of the seventeenth century: ten paragraphs covering the necessity of Scripture in the noetic condition of … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Sufficiency
WCF holds Express And Good Consequence Whatever is necessary for God's glory and human salvation is either expressly stated in Scripture, or may be deduced from it by good and necessary consequence (WCF I.6).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Express Statements Only Only what is expressly stated in Scripture binds the conscience; rejects deduction by good and necessary consequence — a Socinian and later Anabaptist tendency. Scripture And Tradition Scripture is sufficient only when supplemented by the unwritten apostolic tradition preserved in the church — the Tridentine position rejected by WCF I.6.Canon
WCF holds 66 Book Protestant Canon The 39 books of the Old Testament and 27 of the New, enumerated in WCF I.2; the Apocrypha is explicitly excluded (I.3).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
With Apocrypha Includes the Apocryphal books as canonical (Trent) or as 'second canon' useful for instruction (some Anglican readings of Article VI). Reduced Canon Excludes some New Testament books (Hebrews, James, Revelation in Luther's reservations; or further reductions in radical groups).Authority
WCF holds Self Authenticating With Internal Witness Scripture's authority is grounded in God its author and is sealed to the believer's heart by the inward work of the Holy Spirit bearing witness *with and by* the Word (WCF I.4–5).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Church Bestowed Scripture's authority depends on the church's reception and definition — the Tridentine and high-mediaeval position. Immediate Spirit Only Scripture's authority is subordinate to the immediate witness of the Spirit in the believer apart from the written Word — the radical-spiritualist position. Rationally Demonstrated Scripture's authority must be established by external rational proofs alone — the early-modern rationalist tendency the Confession resists.Interpretation
WCF holds Scripture Interprets Scripture The infallible rule of interpretation is Scripture itself: when there is a question about the true sense of any passage, it must be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly (WCF I.9).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Church Magisterium Authoritative interpretation belongs to the church's teaching office — the Roman position rejected by WCF I.10. Private Spirit Each believer's immediate Spirit-illumination decides the meaning of Scripture without ecclesial regulation — the radical position. Critical Reason Scripture is interpreted under the rule of autonomous human reason — the rationalist tendency.Necessity
WCF holds Necessary After The Fall Although the light of nature and the works of creation manifest God's goodness, wisdom, and power, they are not sufficient to give the knowledge of God and his will necessary for salvation; therefore the Lord committed his revelation wholly unto writing (WCF I.1).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Merely Useful Natural revelation suffices for salvation; Scripture is helpful but not strictly necessary — an Arminian-rationalist tendency rejected by the Confession. Unnecessary The inner light alone suffices; Scripture is an aid, not a necessity — the position of the most radical spiritualists.God & Decree
WCF II–V is the Standards' theology proper: God's being and attributes (II), the Trinity (II.3), the eternal decree (III), creation (IV), and providence (V). The doctrine of God is classical: 'one only, living, and true God, who is infinite in being and perfection, a most pure spirit, invisible, without body, … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Trinity
WCF holds Nicene With Filioque One God in three persons; the Son eternally begotten of the Father, the Spirit eternally proceeding from the Father *and the Son* (WCF II.3).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Eastern Procession From Father Only Spirit proceeds from the Father alone; the Eastern Orthodox position rejected (implicitly) by WCF II.3's filioque. Subordinationist Son or Spirit ontologically subordinate to the Father — Arian/Socinian; rejected by II.3. Modalist One person in three modes or operations — Sabellian; rejected by II.3's 'three persons of one substance.'Order of Decrees
WCF holds Deliberately Permits Both WCF III's language is deliberately drafted to permit both supra- and infralapsarianism without imposing either.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Supralapsarian Election and reprobation logically precede the decree of the fall; the order favoured by Twisse and Rutherford within Westminster's permitted range. Infralapsarian Election and reprobation logically follow the decree of the fall; the order held by the English majority within Westminster's permitted range.Extent of Atonement
WCF holds Particular Christ purchased redemption only for the elect; the atonement is intended, designed, and applied for the elect alone (WCF III.6, VIII.5, VIII.8).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Hypothetical Universal Christ's death is sufficient for all and intended conditionally for all who believe, while efficacious only for the elect — the Calamy-Davenant-Vines reading the Standards' language does not exclude. General Arminian Christ died indifferently for all, the application conditioned on foreseen faith — the Arminian position rejected by III.6.Reprobation
WCF holds Preterition And Just Condemnation God passes by the non-elect and ordains them to dishonour and wrath *for their sin* (WCF III.7); a positive decree as to election, a just condemnation as to its execution.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Positive Double Predestination God positively decrees the damnation of the reprobate as an end in itself — the sharper supralapsarian inflection beyond what III.7 states. Single Predestination Affirms election but denies any decree of reprobation — a minority view in seventeenth-century Reformed theology, not entertained by the Standards. Conditional On Foreseen Unbelief Reprobation is grounded in foreseen unbelief — the Arminian position rejected by III.5–7.Covenant of Redemption
WCF holds Implicit Affirmed The Standards affirm the substance of the pactum salutis — God's choosing of Christ as Mediator (WCF VIII.1) and the covenant of grace made with Christ as the second Adam (LC Q. 31) — without the developed apparatus of Cocceius or Witsius.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Explicit Developed A distinct eternal covenant between the Father and the Son, fully developed as a third covenant alongside works and grace — the Cocceian-Witsian elaboration. Rejected Treats the pactum salutis as speculative and not warranted by Scripture — a minority Reformed view.Covenant
WCF VII — 'Of God's Covenant with Man' — is the Standards' structural hinge between theology proper and Christology. It teaches two covenants: the covenant of works, made with Adam, and the covenant of grace, made with Christ and in him with the elect. The covenant of grace is one … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Number of Covenants
WCF holds Bi Covenantal Two covenants — works (with Adam) and grace (with Christ and his elect) — WCF VII.2–3; the Standards' express scheme.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Tri Covenantal Adds an eternal covenant of redemption between Father and Son as a formal third — the Cocceian-Witsian elaboration. Mono Covenantal One covenant of grace across both testaments; minimises a pre-fall covenant of works — a minority Reformed view, not the Standards'.Mosaic Covenant
WCF holds Administration Of Grace The Mosaic dispensation is one administration of the one covenant of grace 'under the law,' awaiting the foreordained time of Christ (WCF VII.5–6).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Republication Of Works Sinai re-publishes the covenant of works in a typological mode while the covenant of grace continues underneath — developed by Owen and Boston after the Assembly. Subservient Covenant Sinai is a third covenant subservient to grace — a Particular Baptist development.Children of Believers
WCF holds Federal Inclusion Paedobaptist Children of one or both believing parents are in the visible church and receive its sign (WCF XXV.2, XXVIII.4).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Credo Baptist Only professing believers and their profession-marked baptism belong to the visible covenant — the 1689 Particular Baptist departure. National Comprehensive All nationally baptised infants are full visible church members — the broader Erastian-Anglican settlement, rejected by Westminster's stricter discipline.Testamental Continuity
WCF holds One Substance Different Administrations The covenant of grace is one and the same in substance through both testaments, differently administered (WCF VII.6) — the bedrock of the Standards' use of OT material.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Testamental Discontinuity The new covenant is materially different from the old, not merely differently administered — a dispensationalist tendency rejected by the Standards. Replacement Of Israel The church wholly replaces ethnic Israel with no remaining peculiar covenantal relation — the Standards leave open a future of ethnic Israel (cf. LC's silence).Christology
WCF VIII — 'Of Christ the Mediator' — is the Standards' Christology. The chapter integrates the conciliar inheritance (Chalcedon, Constantinople II and III) with the Reformed doctrine of the offices: 'It pleased God…to choose and ordain the Lord Jesus, his only begotten Son, to be the Mediator between God and … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Natures
WCF holds Chalcedonian Two Natures Two whole, perfect, and distinct natures — Godhead and manhood — inseparably joined in one person, without conversion, composition, or confusion (WCF VIII.2).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Monophysite One nature after the union (Eutychian/monophysite); rejected by VIII.2. Nestorian Two persons in Christ; rejected by VIII.2's 'one person.'Offices
WCF holds Prophet Priest King Three offices answering to the three deficiencies of fallen humanity (WCF VIII.1; LC Q. 42–45; SC Q. 23–26).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Two Office Priest and King only — a minority schema that the Standards reject. One Office A single mediatorial work without the prophet-priest-king distinction — Socinian reductionism.States & Descent
WCF holds Humiliation And Exaltation; No Local Descent Two states (humiliation, exaltation); the *descendit* is interpreted as the continued state of death between cross and resurrection, not a local descent (LC Q. 50).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Local Descent Christ literally descended into a place called Hades — variously to liberate OT saints, to suffer further, or to triumph over hell; not the Standards' reading. Metaphorical Only The *descendit* is merely metaphor for the depth of Christ's suffering on the cross — Calvin's secondary suggestion, not preferred by the LC.Active-Obedience Imputation
WCF holds Active And Passive Obedience Imputed Both Christ's obedience and his sacrifice — his whole righteousness — are imputed to the justified believer (WCF VIII.5; XI.1, 3).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Passive Only Only Christ's suffering of the curse is imputed; his active obedience is required for his own person — Piscator's denial, rejected by the Assembly. Faith As Righteousness Faith itself counted as righteousness, not the imputation of Christ's obedience — the Arminian/Socinian position rejected by XI.1.Soteriology
WCF X–XVIII traces the *ordo salutis*: effectual calling (X), justification (XI), adoption (XII), sanctification (XIII), saving faith (XIV), repentance unto life (XV), good works (XVI), perseverance of the saints (XVII), and assurance of grace and salvation (XVIII). Each chapter is carefully drafted to balance God's monergistic grace with the integrity … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Effectual Calling
WCF holds Effectual And Renewing The Spirit effectually calls the elect by enlightening their minds, renewing their wills, and drawing them to Christ, yet so as they come most freely (WCF X.1–2).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Resistible Sufficient Grace Grace is sufficient for all who hear and is finally resistible — the Arminian position rejected by X.2. Cooperative Synergistic The will cooperates with grace as a co-equal cause — the Tridentine position rejected by X.1. Eternal Justification The elect are eternally justified prior to faith; calling is the discovery, not the application, of justification — Eternal-Justification antinomianism.Justification Ground
WCF holds Imputed Righteousness Of Christ Justification is a forensic act of pardon and acceptance grounded in the imputation of Christ's whole obedience and satisfaction, received by faith alone (WCF XI.1–4).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Infused Righteousness Justification is by infused habitual grace making the believer righteous — the Tridentine position rejected by XI.1. Faith As Righteousness Faith itself is counted as the formal righteousness — the Arminian-Socinian reading rejected by XI.1. Eternal In The Decree Justification is eternal in the decree, only manifested in time — antinomian, rejected by XI.4.Saving Faith
WCF holds Receptive Resting On Christ Alone Saving faith is the act of the soul receiving and resting upon Christ alone for salvation, as he is offered in the gospel (WCF XIV.2; SC Q. 86).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Formed By Love Faith justifies as it is *formed* by love (*fides caritate formata*) — the Tridentine position rejected by WCF XI.2. Mere Assent Faith is bare intellectual assent without trust — the Socinian and (in some readings) the strict-orthodox-only inflection; rejected by XIV.2.Perseverance
WCF holds Certain For The Elect Those whom God hath accepted in his Beloved, effectually called and sanctified by his Spirit, can neither totally nor finally fall away from the state of grace (WCF XVII.1).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Conditional On Continued Faith Perseverance is conditional on the believer's continued faith and obedience; final apostasy of the truly regenerate is possible — the Arminian position rejected by XVII.1. Fall From Grace A regenerate believer may finally fall away — the Wesleyan and later Arminian reading, rejected by XVII.1.Assurance
WCF holds Attainable But Not Essence Of Faith An infallible assurance is attainable in this life but does not belong to the essence of faith; a true believer may wait long and conflict with many difficulties before partaking of it (WCF XVIII.3).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Essence Of Faith Assurance is of the essence of saving faith; every true believer enjoys full assurance — the early-Calvin and Beza tendency softened by the Standards. Ordinarily Unattainable Assurance is so rare as to be ordinarily unattainable — the Tridentine position rejected by XVIII.1–4. Both Spirit Witness And Marks Assurance is built upon the divine truth of the promises, the inward evidence of those graces unto which the promises are made, and the testimony of the Spirit of adoption (WCF XVIII.2).Law & Sanctification
WCF XIX–XXII handles the law (XIX), Christian liberty and liberty of conscience (XX), religious worship and the Sabbath day (XXI), and lawful oaths and vows (XXII). The Larger Catechism Q. 91–151 exposits the Decalogue in extraordinary detail — sixty questions on the law alone, treating each commandment positively (what it … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Uses of the Law
WCF holds Three Uses Affirmed Civil (restraint), pedagogical (driving to Christ), and normative (rule of life for the regenerate) — WCF XIX.5–6.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Two Uses No Third Civil and pedagogical only; denies the third use for the regenerate — the antinomian position rejected by XIX.6. Pedagogical Only The law only convicts; it has no civil or normative office — radical-spiritualist.Tripartite Division
WCF holds Moral Judicial Ceremonial Moral law (perpetually binding), judicial law (expired with the Jewish polity except for general equity), ceremonial law (abrogated in Christ) — WCF XIX.3–5.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Unitary The Mosaic law is one undifferentiated whole — denying the tripartite division on which Reformed casuistry rests. Theonomic General Equity Expanded The judicial law's general equity binds the modern magistrate in its substance — a reading of XIX.4's 'general equity' clause beyond what the Assembly intended.Sabbath
WCF holds Lords Day Fourth Commandment Perpetual A creation ordinance; one day in seven is to be kept holy; changed to the first day of the week from the resurrection of Christ (WCF XXI.7–8) — the strict-Sabbatarian position.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Continental Moral Only The Sabbath's perpetual element is the principle of regular public worship, not strict cessation; permits ordered recreation after public worship — the Continental Reformed inflection. Abrogated The fourth commandment is wholly ceremonial and abrogated in Christ — rejected by WCF XXI.7.Good Works
WCF holds Necessary Fruit Not Meritorious Good works are the fruits and evidences of a true and lively faith; they cannot merit pardon of sin or eternal life (WCF XVI.2, 5).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Meritorious De Condigno Good works done in grace merit eternal life by condign worth — the Tridentine position rejected by XVI.5. Not Required Good works are unnecessary in the Christian life — the antinomian position rejected by XVI.2.Ecclesiology & Worship
WCF XXV–XXXI plus XXI handle the church (XXV), the communion of saints (XXVI), the sacraments (XXVII), baptism (XXVIII), the Lord's Supper (XXIX), church censures (XXX), synods and councils (XXXI), and religious worship (XXI). The Form of Presbyterial Church Government (1645) and the Directory for Public Worship (1645) supply the ordering … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Polity
WCF holds Presbyterian Jure Divino Christ has instituted a graded series of presbyterial assemblies (session, presbytery, synod, general assembly) by divine right (Form of Government 1645; WCF XXX–XXXI) — the Scottish reading.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Independent Congregational Christ has given the keys to the local congregation under its officers; synods are advisory — the Dissenting Brethren's reading, accommodated by but not affirmed in the Standards. Reformed Episcopal Retains bishops over presbyters as a third order of ministry while affirming the Reformed doctrine — the Anglican settlement Westminster displaced. Erastian Civil magistrate is the ultimate ecclesiastical authority — Selden's and Lightfoot's Assembly position, rejected by WCF XXX.1.Sacramental Efficacy
WCF holds Signs And Seals Conferring Grace By Spirit Sacraments are signs and seals of the covenant of grace, conferring the grace signified by the work of the Spirit and the word of institution upon worthy receivers (WCF XXVII.1–3; XXVIII.6; XXIX.7).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Ex Opere Operato Sacraments confer grace by the act performed, independent of faith — the Tridentine position rejected by XXVII.3. Bare Memorial Sacraments are merely memorial or instructive signs with no conferral of grace — the Zwinglian position softened by Westminster's seal language. Converting Ordinance The Lord's Supper functions as a converting ordinance for the morally serious unconverted — Stoddard's later position, rejected by WCF XXIX.7.Regulative Principle
WCF holds Strict Only What Commanded Only what is instituted by God in Scripture (by precept, approved example, or good and necessary consequence) may be done in worship (WCF XXI.1).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Moderate With Circumstances Regulative in substance but allows circumstantial adiaphora (time, place, posture) governed by light of nature and Christian prudence (WCF I.6, XXI.1). Normative Whatever Not Forbidden Whatever is not forbidden may be done in worship — the Anglican-Lutheran principle the Standards reject.Censures & Synods
WCF holds Three Degrees With Graded Synods Admonition, suspension from the sacrament, and excommunication (WCF XXX.4); synods and councils as a regulative ordinance of Christ for the better government of the church (XXXI.1–2).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Excommunication Only Discipline collapses into a single degree (excommunication) — a more lax practice rejected by WCF XXX.4. Civil Discipline Only Discipline belongs to the magistrate — the Erastian view rejected by XXX.1.Civil & Last Things
WCF XXIII–XXIV (the magistrate; marriage and divorce) and WCF XXXII–XXXIII (the state of man after death and the resurrection of the dead; the last judgment) frame the Standards' civil and eschatological commitments. The magistrate chapter is the locus of the Standards' great internal evolution: the 1646 British text gave the … Read the full overview →
The questions the Confession settles under this head:
Magistrate's Role
WCF holds Custos Utriusque Tabulae (1646) Magistrate has duty toward both tables of the Decalogue — to suppress public heresy and blasphemy, to call synods (WCF XXIII.3, 1646 text) — the Solemn-League-and-Covenant settlement.The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Protective Not Directive (1788) Magistrate protects the church from violence and danger without preferring one denomination — the American 1788 revision aligning with disestablishment. Mixed Care Without Coercion Affirms the magistrate's care for true religion but restricts instruments to non-coercive means. Erastian Magistrate Over Church Magistrate holds ultimate ecclesiastical authority — Selden and Lightfoot's Assembly position rejected by XXX.1.Oaths & Marriage
WCF holds Oaths Lawful Serious; Divorce Adultery Or Desertion Lawful oaths are a part of religious worship when warranted by truth, judgment and seriousness (WCF XXII.1–7); marriage between one man and one woman, indissoluble except by adultery or willful desertion (XXIV.1, 5–6).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Oaths Forbidden Altogether Christ's words 'Swear not at all' (Matthew 5:34) forbid all oaths — the Quaker position rejected by XXII.1. Marriage No Divorce Marriage is wholly indissoluble; even adultery does not warrant remarriage — a stricter Catholic position rejected by XXIV.5. Marriage Liberal Divorce Multiple grounds for divorce beyond adultery and desertion — the broader Erasmian-Reformed reading not adopted by Westminster.Intermediate State
WCF holds Immediate Conscious With God Or Judgment Souls of the righteous are immediately received into the highest heavens; souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day (WCF XXXII.1).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Soul Sleep Mortalism Souls sleep unconsciously between death and resurrection — the Christian-mortalist position (Milton later) rejected by XXXII.1. Purgatory And Limbus Souls of the imperfectly purified pass through purgatorial fire; OT saints in *limbus patrum* — the Roman scheme rejected by XXXII.1's denial of 'any other place' beyond heaven and hell.Final Judgment
WCF holds Single Universal Judgment By Christ God hath appointed a day wherein he will judge the world in righteousness by Jesus Christ; the righteous to everlasting life, the wicked to everlasting destruction (WCF XXXIII.1–2; SC Q. 38).The Confession weighs and sets aside:
Two Resurrections Premillennial Two distinct resurrections separated by a millennial reign — the premillennial scheme; the Standards do not adopt this language but neither do they exclude it. Annihilationism The wicked are finally annihilated rather than eternally punished — a Socinian-then-conditionalist position rejected by XXXIII.2's 'everlasting destruction.' Universal Restoration All shall finally be saved (Origen's *apokatastasis*; some seventeenth-century radicals) — rejected by XXXIII.2.